BOOK REVIEWS BY INNERTRADITIONS/BEAR&COMPANY
Impending Comet To Wreak Havoc Again?
In the year 2024, the comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is due to pass near Earth again for the first time in 3500 years. Graham Phillips’s The End of Eden presents compelling evidence that civilizations worldwide became warlike and monotheistic after Earth passed through the tail of this comet in 1500 B.C. He explores the violent effect of 12P/Pons-Brooks on peaceful cultures such as the Olmec of Mexico and the Megalithic people who built Stonehenge and shows how this comet’s appearance was taken as a significant religious event that still has repercussions today.
In 1500 B.C., Earth passed through the comet’s tail, and in the decade following, cultures the world over began to exhibit significant aggressive tendencies. Civilizations in India, the Middle East, China, Japan, Europe, and Central America suddenly abandoned their peaceful ways and devoted themselves with uncharacteristic fervor to making war on their neighbors and fighting among themselves.
But this was not the only effect that is linked to this celestial event. Sudden outbreaks of monotheism—the worship of a single god, and a new idea at the time—occurred simultaneously in locales spread widely throughout the world. Most of these monotheistic religions represented their god symbolically as a circle with a series of lines extending below—resembling a simple drawing of a comet.
Phillips argues that there is no other explanation for these changes other than the presence of this massive comet in the skies above Earth. He contends that debris in the comet’s tail contaminated the atmosphere with a chemical known to cause aggressive behavior, and that after little more than a decade, worldwide hostility abruptly abated. He also explores how the appearance of a celestial body that outshone the moon would have been interpreted as a significant religious event—the premier appearance of a powerful new god to supplant the deities previously worshipped around the world.
Graham Phillips is the author of The Templars and the Ark of the Covenant and Atlantis and the Ten Plagues of Egypt. He lives in England.
Homer’s Tales Take Place in Atlantic, not Mediterranean
In The Triumph of the Sea Gods, Steven Sora argues compellingly that Homer’s tales do not describe adventures in the Mediterranean, but are adaptations of Celtic myths that chronicle an Atlantic coastal war that took place off the Iberian Peninsula around 1200 B.C. Sora’s investigation of the geographical incongruities in Homer’s epics locates Troy on the coast of Iberia, and cites the rise in sea level in 1200 B.C. as leading to the invasion and victory of the Atlantean sea people over the goddess-worshipping Trojans who ruled the coasts.
It was a war between the pro-goddess Celtic culture that presided over what is now Portugal and the patriarchal culture of the sea-faring Atlanteans. The invasion of the Atlanteans brought destruction to the entire region stretching from Western Europe’s Atlantic border to Egypt, Syria, and Turkey. This was a turning point not only politically but also spiritually. The goddess became demonized, as seen in myths such as Pandora’s Box, in which woman was seen as letting evil into the world, and Homer’s epic tale of the Greek and Trojan war, which was triggered by the abduction of a woman.
The actual historical struggle described in Homer’s stories, Sora explains, occurred during what was the last in a series of rises in sea level that inundated various land masses (Atlantis) and permitted sea passage to areas previously accessible only by land. The “Sea Gods” (Atlanteans) attacked the tri-city region of Troia (Troy), near present-day Lisbon, which, shortly thereafter, fell victim to a devastating series of seaquakes and tsunamis. The war and the subsequent destructive weather broke the power of this seaboard civilization, leading to a wholesale invasion by the sea peoples and the rapid decline of the region’s goddess-worshipping culture that had reigned there since Neolithic times. Sora shows how Homer’s tales allow the modern world to glimpse this ancient conflict, which has been obscured for centuries.
Steven Sora has been researching historical enigmas since 1982 and is the author of The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar and Secret Societies of America’s Elite. He lives in Easton, Pennsylvania.
“Technological progress is like an axe in the hand of a pathological criminal”
-Albert Einstein
Everyday technology advances further into the depths of Science Fiction; while we as humans try to catch up (sociologically speaking). Half of the population keeps looking towards the stars and the future for answers while the other half looks towards the earth, looking at the past. Given that history is in a circular and progressive state of repetition, we can only assume that we once may have held fantastic knowledge in the palm of our hands. Archeologists are in a constant battle with foreign and domestic countries alike to research on various territories across the globe.
The past can lead us to the future but only if we can fully understand what it is that it’s trying to say. Communication has become branded with the World Wide Web. How did we get along with out? I can’t imagine. Hell, I couldn’t even write this article without it. The use of cell phones alone have led to what some thought impractical only twenty years ago. The Star Trek generation has come upon us faster then we could’ve anticipated. Everything from Bluetooth earpieces to portable DVD players are now in fruition.
Laptops are now equipped with finger print technology and Wi-Fi so we can have instant access to said World Wide Web, basically anywhere on the planet. Pretty soon we’ll have retinal scans and DNA samples just so we can boot up our home computer. Sony’s newest advancement is HDNA; High Definition combined with DNA.
“Sony Electronics is set to launch a $100M ad campaign in order to promote what they are calling HDNA - a combination of high definition (HD) and DNA. The campaign will focus on educating the public about Sony high definition products, including Sony Blu-ray players, and how they all integrate to provide the ultimate high definition experience.”1.
Sony’s latest home entertainment invention is the PS3, complete with Blue-Ray technology. In case you’re confused about what Blue-Ray really is let me explain.
Blue-Ray is a Blue-Violet laser. Just like the red laser you were once used to seeing at the check out lines in your local grocery stores. However the Blue-Violet laser is significantly smaller, about 245 Nano-meters smaller to be exact. Meaning, that you can now store that much more information on a single disc; more information in less space. Why? I ask if we live in a forever expanding universe do we want to continually create smaller and smaller items, cell phones, laptops, and even cars. With the 65 inch television and Hummer being two of the few exceptions.
But, now we can have the ultimate in gaming experience with the PS3. I’m more of an Xbox fan myself, but that’s a different story. The Blu-Ray offers fantastic elements to any game on the PS3. Let’s say Tomb Raider; Legend for example. This by the way, is a game placed in the present focusing on the past using instruments of the future; (i.e. waterproof PDA.) This is great game using medieval, mythological, and historical ideology to help Lara Croft on her quest to put Excalibur back together from pieces scattered all over the world.
The idea of believing that the past is the key to the future holds true to me. I trust that if we search long enough the past will reveal hidden truths about us as humans. But technologically speaking as consumers we are in the past and the future is continually just out of reach. As soon as we have our hands on the latest technology something newer, better, and more significant comes along. First there was Film, then it moved to tape or VHS, and then it became Laserdisc (that was too complicated and who really wants to stop in the middle of Tango and Cash to flip the disc over?).
That led to DVD and wow that is amazing. Nothing beats that two disc set of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. I own the box set but that’s all blown apart with Indiana Jones part four coming out. Nothing beats DVD, except Blu-Ray. Like I’ve said just when we have our hands on the latest technology something newer and better comes along. Not that I’m complaining mind you. But I’m still a huge fan of High Definition in the end. It’s affordable and there’s enough of it out there that we can purchase top quality merchandise and not have to sell our house to do so. Robert Rodriguez is one of the most influential film makers of today and he shoots on HD instead of film. Why?
“HD; its revolutionary. You'll see, man. They're going to wonder how I'm making three movies a year and they all look better than their movies—and they're cheaper. So they're all going to start getting into it. But right now they've still got their blinders on.”2.
So, in the end cost.
But, once Blue-Ray makes its way into the film scene for the consumer then we’re going to see some fantastic films being made. Personally I’m a fantasy buff, I like Medieval and mythological and even theological films, the most recent being Pathfinder; The tale of Viking child who grows up with and indigenous tribe only to have to fight his own ancestors to save his foster family.
For now though I’ll stick with HD for watching and making movies and Blu-Ray for playing videos games. Speaking of video games I’ve decided to make wish list of games I’d like to see. Maybe Sony will take notice. 1. An ancient Egyptian based game about the fall of the empire. Or loosely based on Stargate the movie. 2. A Medieval game where you are a king and the decisions within the game decide the fate of your people and their kingdom. 3. You are an archeologist who has discovered an ancient alien artifact and accidentally activated it. Now, several alien species are after you. And you must fight or hide to stay alive. Let’s call it Unearthed.
Homer’s Tales Take Place in Atlantic, not Mediterranean
In The Triumph of the Sea Gods, Steven Sora argues compellingly that Homer’s tales do not describe adventures in the Mediterranean, but are adaptations of Celtic myths that chronicle an Atlantic coastal war that took place off the Iberian Peninsula around 1200 B.C. Sora’s investigation of the geographical incongruities in Homer’s epics locates Troy on the coast of Iberia, and cites the rise in sea level in 1200 B.C. as leading to the invasion and victory of the Atlantean sea people over the goddess-worshipping Trojans who ruled the coasts.
It was a war between the pro-goddess Celtic culture that presided over what is now Portugal and the patriarchal culture of the sea-faring Atlanteans. The invasion of the Atlanteans brought destruction to the entire region stretching from Western Europe’s Atlantic border to Egypt, Syria, and Turkey. This was a turning point not only politically but also spiritually. The goddess became demonized, as seen in myths such as Pandora’s Box, in which woman was seen as letting evil into the world, and Homer’s epic tale of the Greek and Trojan war, which was triggered by the abduction of a woman.
The actual historical struggle described in Homer’s stories, Sora explains, occurred during what was the last in a series of rises in sea level that inundated various land masses (Atlantis) and permitted sea passage to areas previously accessible only by land. The “Sea Gods” (Atlanteans) attacked the tri-city region of Troia (Troy), near present-day Lisbon, which, shortly thereafter, fell victim to a devastating series of seaquakes and tsunamis. The war and the subsequent destructive weather broke the power of this seaboard civilization, leading to a wholesale invasion by the sea peoples and the rapid decline of the region’s goddess-worshipping culture that had reigned there since Neolithic times. Sora shows how Homer’s tales allow the modern world to glimpse this ancient conflict, which has been obscured for centuries.
Steven Sora has been researching historical enigmas since 1982 and is the author of The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar and Secret Societies of America’s Elite. He lives in Easton, Pennsylvania.
Monday, September 14, 2009
Rejuvenating the Temples of Egypt
By Robert M. Schoch
Boston University
I always return from Egypt with mixed feelings, a combination of joy and sadness, elation and exhaustion, and this time was no different. I spent Spring Recess (the second full week of March 2007) touring Egypt with a mixed group composed of university students and interested persons. We visited as many of the major sites as possible in the allotted time: Luxor Temple, Karnak Temple, The Valley of the Kings, The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Dendera, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae/Agilika, and of course the Giza Plateau with the Great Pyramid and Great Sphinx. In addition, we had the chance to explore Aswan (visiting a mosque and a small Nubian village on the Nile), Luxor, and Cairo (including the Egyptian Museum, perhaps now most famous for housing the artifacts from Tutankhamen’s tomb). While in Cairo/Giza we stayed at the historic Mena House Hotel (dating back to the middle nineteenth century and within walking distance of the Great Pyramid - - the view is spectacular). In Luxor we stayed at the modern Egyptian “art deco” Sonesta St. George Hotel, and between Luxor and Aswan we made our home on the H.S. Radamis II Mövenpick, one of the many cruise ships that ply the Nile.
Egypt is a beautiful and magical place at its best, but it is also a land where ancient mysteries have been exploited and holy places violated for the purpose of tourism and entertainment. The temples are crying. The souls once interred and at peace have been disturbed. The walls protecting the sanctuaries where the sick of body and spirit could go to heal have been breached. Sacred spaces are being lost to the profane and the mundane. Wading through the throngs crowding the temples and tombs, making my way through the bustling masses of humanity, elbowing in close to inspect a particular relief, while one more traveler thoughtlessly slammed her daypack or smashed his camera bag into an ancient inscription, there was many a time I wondered if all the magic was gone. But the power of the ancient structures is irrepressible, and even in their violated condition they have much to offer. During a quiet moment in an inner room, standing in a courtyard away from the bustle, or contemplating an obscure symbol in a dark corner, one can still feel the ancient ritual and mystery.
Despite the sprawl of modern shops catering to the tourists with their cheap trinkets and over-priced batteries and other camera supplies, I can still manage to catch glimpse of what was and, I hope, will be. The Temple of Horus (son of Osiris and Isis) at Edfu still memorializes the drama of Horus as he avenges his father’s death at the hands of Set. The temple at Kom Ombo is jointly dedicated to the crocodile-headed Sobek (mummified crocodiles found in the vicinity are currently on display) and the falcon-headed Haroeris (known also as Horus the Elder). Here is honored the eternal cycle of the universe. Sobek, allied with Set (who, after killing Osiris, fought Horus), was a God of Death and what simplistically might be seen as “evil,” yet not evil in any absolute sense, but the other side of good, for by one way of thinking without evil there cannot be good or redemption, and without death there cannot be resurrection and life. Haroeris in some ancient texts was equated with Day while Sobek was associated with Night. To the trained eye and informed mind, in Egypt every temple has a different story to tell.
Our group was indeed fortunate in that by special arrangement we had the entire Great Pyramid to ourselves for about an hour and a half. I have spent many hours in the Great Pyramid in various guises and contexts: as researcher, as tourist, as postulant. This time it was a pleasure to introduce this greatest wonder of the world to about two dozen people who had never been to Egypt before. We made good use of our time, visiting the Subterranean Chamber, the Grand Gallery, the King’s Chamber, and the Queen’s Chamber. By the time we had to leave, I hoped that all attending had experienced, even if for just a few moments and at an incipient level, the ancient magic. As we departed, the throngs of tourists once again entered.
Still, I was not totally satisfied. I want to do more to rejuvenate the ancient magic, to bring back the sacred and holy aspects of the ancient monuments, to cleanse and purge them of their abusers. To this end, I am developing a plan with several of my colleagues. In brief, we would like to organize healing trips to Egypt during which sacred rites and rituals associated with the mystery schools, ancient and modern, can once again be carried out in the temples, perhaps culminating with initiation ceremonies in the Great Pyramid. There are still active organizations and schools that have guarded and revived the ancient rites, and learning from them and working with them could be a way to restore the true magic of the monuments. Perhaps we cannot reconstruct the ancient rites exactly to the letter, but we can capture their spirit and significance in modern terms. What I have in mind is a group composed exclusively of devotees who will view the trip as a sacred pilgrimage, taking the matter extremely seriously while also being open to the transformative powers of the ancient ritual and context. As we return to Egypt with the right mindset and intentions, we will not only heal and rehabilitate ourselves, but begin to cleanse and rejuvenate the monuments as well. Perhaps this has been a long time coming, but the mysteries of Egypt are eternal and transcend the boundaries of time.
Photos:
The Temple of Sobek and Haroeris, Kom Ombo. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Ancient mummified crocodile preserved at Kom Ombo. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
The Temple of Luxor, March 2007. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Robert Schoch at the Temple of Horus, Edfu, March 2007. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Boston University
I always return from Egypt with mixed feelings, a combination of joy and sadness, elation and exhaustion, and this time was no different. I spent Spring Recess (the second full week of March 2007) touring Egypt with a mixed group composed of university students and interested persons. We visited as many of the major sites as possible in the allotted time: Luxor Temple, Karnak Temple, The Valley of the Kings, The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Dendera, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae/Agilika, and of course the Giza Plateau with the Great Pyramid and Great Sphinx. In addition, we had the chance to explore Aswan (visiting a mosque and a small Nubian village on the Nile), Luxor, and Cairo (including the Egyptian Museum, perhaps now most famous for housing the artifacts from Tutankhamen’s tomb). While in Cairo/Giza we stayed at the historic Mena House Hotel (dating back to the middle nineteenth century and within walking distance of the Great Pyramid - - the view is spectacular). In Luxor we stayed at the modern Egyptian “art deco” Sonesta St. George Hotel, and between Luxor and Aswan we made our home on the H.S. Radamis II Mövenpick, one of the many cruise ships that ply the Nile.
Egypt is a beautiful and magical place at its best, but it is also a land where ancient mysteries have been exploited and holy places violated for the purpose of tourism and entertainment. The temples are crying. The souls once interred and at peace have been disturbed. The walls protecting the sanctuaries where the sick of body and spirit could go to heal have been breached. Sacred spaces are being lost to the profane and the mundane. Wading through the throngs crowding the temples and tombs, making my way through the bustling masses of humanity, elbowing in close to inspect a particular relief, while one more traveler thoughtlessly slammed her daypack or smashed his camera bag into an ancient inscription, there was many a time I wondered if all the magic was gone. But the power of the ancient structures is irrepressible, and even in their violated condition they have much to offer. During a quiet moment in an inner room, standing in a courtyard away from the bustle, or contemplating an obscure symbol in a dark corner, one can still feel the ancient ritual and mystery.
Despite the sprawl of modern shops catering to the tourists with their cheap trinkets and over-priced batteries and other camera supplies, I can still manage to catch glimpse of what was and, I hope, will be. The Temple of Horus (son of Osiris and Isis) at Edfu still memorializes the drama of Horus as he avenges his father’s death at the hands of Set. The temple at Kom Ombo is jointly dedicated to the crocodile-headed Sobek (mummified crocodiles found in the vicinity are currently on display) and the falcon-headed Haroeris (known also as Horus the Elder). Here is honored the eternal cycle of the universe. Sobek, allied with Set (who, after killing Osiris, fought Horus), was a God of Death and what simplistically might be seen as “evil,” yet not evil in any absolute sense, but the other side of good, for by one way of thinking without evil there cannot be good or redemption, and without death there cannot be resurrection and life. Haroeris in some ancient texts was equated with Day while Sobek was associated with Night. To the trained eye and informed mind, in Egypt every temple has a different story to tell.
Our group was indeed fortunate in that by special arrangement we had the entire Great Pyramid to ourselves for about an hour and a half. I have spent many hours in the Great Pyramid in various guises and contexts: as researcher, as tourist, as postulant. This time it was a pleasure to introduce this greatest wonder of the world to about two dozen people who had never been to Egypt before. We made good use of our time, visiting the Subterranean Chamber, the Grand Gallery, the King’s Chamber, and the Queen’s Chamber. By the time we had to leave, I hoped that all attending had experienced, even if for just a few moments and at an incipient level, the ancient magic. As we departed, the throngs of tourists once again entered.
Still, I was not totally satisfied. I want to do more to rejuvenate the ancient magic, to bring back the sacred and holy aspects of the ancient monuments, to cleanse and purge them of their abusers. To this end, I am developing a plan with several of my colleagues. In brief, we would like to organize healing trips to Egypt during which sacred rites and rituals associated with the mystery schools, ancient and modern, can once again be carried out in the temples, perhaps culminating with initiation ceremonies in the Great Pyramid. There are still active organizations and schools that have guarded and revived the ancient rites, and learning from them and working with them could be a way to restore the true magic of the monuments. Perhaps we cannot reconstruct the ancient rites exactly to the letter, but we can capture their spirit and significance in modern terms. What I have in mind is a group composed exclusively of devotees who will view the trip as a sacred pilgrimage, taking the matter extremely seriously while also being open to the transformative powers of the ancient ritual and context. As we return to Egypt with the right mindset and intentions, we will not only heal and rehabilitate ourselves, but begin to cleanse and rejuvenate the monuments as well. Perhaps this has been a long time coming, but the mysteries of Egypt are eternal and transcend the boundaries of time.
Photos:
The Temple of Sobek and Haroeris, Kom Ombo. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Ancient mummified crocodile preserved at Kom Ombo. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
The Temple of Luxor, March 2007. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Robert Schoch at the Temple of Horus, Edfu, March 2007. (Photograph copyright R. M. Schoch, 2007)
Biblical Archaeology Quotes
"I know of no finding in archaeology that’s properly confirmed which is in opposition to the Scriptures. The Bible is the most accurate history textbook the world has ever seen." - Dr Clifford Wilson, formerly director of the Australian Institute of Archaeology (quote obtained from: Archaeologist Speaks Out)
"Through the wealth of data uncovered by historical and archaeological research, we are able to measure the Bible's historical accuracy. In every case where its claims can thus be tested, the Bible proves to be accurate and reliable." - Dr. Jack Cottrell, The Authority of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), pp. 48-49.
"In every instance where the findings of archaeology pertain to the Biblical record, the archaeological evidence confirms, sometimes in detailed fashion, the historical accuracy of Scripture. In those instances where the archaeological findings seem to be at variance with the Bible, the discrepancy lies with the archaeological evidence, i.e., improper interpretation, lack of evidence, etc. -- not with the Bible." - Dr. Bryant C. Wood, archaeologist, Associates for Biblical Research [1]
"It may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference. Scores of archaeological findings have been made which confirm in clear outline or exact detail historical statements in the Bible. And, by the same token, proper evaluation of Biblical description has often led to amazing discoveries." - Dr. Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert, (New York: Farrar, Strous and Cudahy, 1959), 136.
"Archaeology has confirmed countless passages which have been rejected by critics as unhistorical or contradictory to known facts......Yet archaeological discoveries have shown that these critical charges.....are wrong and that the Bible is trustworthy in the very statements which have been set aside as untrustworthy.....We do not know of any cases where the Bible has been proved wrong." - Dr. Joseph P. Free, Archaeology and Bible History. Scripture Press, Wheaton, IL, 1969, pg. 1
"The reader may rest assured that nothing has been found [by archaeologists] to disturb a reasonable faith, and nothing has been discovered which can disprove a single theological doctrine. We no longer trouble ourselves with attempts to 'harmonize' religion and science, or to 'prove' the Bible. The Bible can stand for itself." - Dr. William F. Albright, eminent archeologist who confirmed the authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls following their discovery
"There can be no doubt that archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition." - Dr. William F. Albright, Archaeology and the Religions of Israel. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1956, p. 176.
"On the whole, however, archaeological work has unquestionably strengthened confidence in the reliability of the Scriptural record. More than one archaeologist has found his respect for the Bible increased by the experience of excavation in Palestine....Archaeology has in many cases refuted the views of modern critics. It has shown, in a number of instances, that these views rest on false assumptions and unreal, artificial schemes of historical development. This is a real contribution and not to be minimized." - Millar Burrows, Professor of Archaeology at Yale University, What Mean These Stones?, Meridian Books, New York, NY, 1956, p. 1
"The excessive skepticism of many liberal theologians stems not from a careful evaluation of the available data, but from an enormous predisposition against the supernatural." - Professor Millar Burrows (Professor of Archaeology at Yale University), What Mean These Stones?, Meridian Books, New York, NY, 1956, p. 176.
"It is therefore legitimate to say that, in respect of that part of the Old Testament against which the disintegrating criticism of the last half of the nineteenth century was chiefly directed, the evidence of archaeology has been to reestablish its authority and likewise to augment its value by rendering it more intelligible through a fuller knowledge of its background and setting. Archaeology has not yet said its last word, but the results already achieved confirm what faith would suggest – that the Bible can do nothing but gain from an increase in knowledge." - Sir Frederic Kenyon, a former director of the British Museum, The Bible and Archaeology (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940), page 279.
"I set out to look for truth on the borderland where Greece and Asia meet, and found it there. You may press the words of Luke in a degree beyond any other historian's and they stand the keenest scrutiny and the hardest treatment." - Sir William Ramsey (eminent archaeologists who changed his mind regarding Luke after extensive study in the field), (1915), The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1975 reprint), page 89.
Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of facts trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense...In short this author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians." - Sir William Ramsey (archaeologist), The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, 1915, pages 81, 222
"Through the wealth of data uncovered by historical and archaeological research, we are able to measure the Bible's historical accuracy. In every case where its claims can thus be tested, the Bible proves to be accurate and reliable." - Dr. Jack Cottrell, The Authority of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), pp. 48-49.
"In every instance where the findings of archaeology pertain to the Biblical record, the archaeological evidence confirms, sometimes in detailed fashion, the historical accuracy of Scripture. In those instances where the archaeological findings seem to be at variance with the Bible, the discrepancy lies with the archaeological evidence, i.e., improper interpretation, lack of evidence, etc. -- not with the Bible." - Dr. Bryant C. Wood, archaeologist, Associates for Biblical Research [1]
"It may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference. Scores of archaeological findings have been made which confirm in clear outline or exact detail historical statements in the Bible. And, by the same token, proper evaluation of Biblical description has often led to amazing discoveries." - Dr. Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert, (New York: Farrar, Strous and Cudahy, 1959), 136.
"Archaeology has confirmed countless passages which have been rejected by critics as unhistorical or contradictory to known facts......Yet archaeological discoveries have shown that these critical charges.....are wrong and that the Bible is trustworthy in the very statements which have been set aside as untrustworthy.....We do not know of any cases where the Bible has been proved wrong." - Dr. Joseph P. Free, Archaeology and Bible History. Scripture Press, Wheaton, IL, 1969, pg. 1
"The reader may rest assured that nothing has been found [by archaeologists] to disturb a reasonable faith, and nothing has been discovered which can disprove a single theological doctrine. We no longer trouble ourselves with attempts to 'harmonize' religion and science, or to 'prove' the Bible. The Bible can stand for itself." - Dr. William F. Albright, eminent archeologist who confirmed the authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls following their discovery
"There can be no doubt that archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition." - Dr. William F. Albright, Archaeology and the Religions of Israel. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1956, p. 176.
"On the whole, however, archaeological work has unquestionably strengthened confidence in the reliability of the Scriptural record. More than one archaeologist has found his respect for the Bible increased by the experience of excavation in Palestine....Archaeology has in many cases refuted the views of modern critics. It has shown, in a number of instances, that these views rest on false assumptions and unreal, artificial schemes of historical development. This is a real contribution and not to be minimized." - Millar Burrows, Professor of Archaeology at Yale University, What Mean These Stones?, Meridian Books, New York, NY, 1956, p. 1
"The excessive skepticism of many liberal theologians stems not from a careful evaluation of the available data, but from an enormous predisposition against the supernatural." - Professor Millar Burrows (Professor of Archaeology at Yale University), What Mean These Stones?, Meridian Books, New York, NY, 1956, p. 176.
"It is therefore legitimate to say that, in respect of that part of the Old Testament against which the disintegrating criticism of the last half of the nineteenth century was chiefly directed, the evidence of archaeology has been to reestablish its authority and likewise to augment its value by rendering it more intelligible through a fuller knowledge of its background and setting. Archaeology has not yet said its last word, but the results already achieved confirm what faith would suggest – that the Bible can do nothing but gain from an increase in knowledge." - Sir Frederic Kenyon, a former director of the British Museum, The Bible and Archaeology (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1940), page 279.
"I set out to look for truth on the borderland where Greece and Asia meet, and found it there. You may press the words of Luke in a degree beyond any other historian's and they stand the keenest scrutiny and the hardest treatment." - Sir William Ramsey (eminent archaeologists who changed his mind regarding Luke after extensive study in the field), (1915), The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1975 reprint), page 89.
Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of facts trustworthy; he is possessed of the true historic sense...In short this author should be placed along with the very greatest of historians." - Sir William Ramsey (archaeologist), The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, 1915, pages 81, 222
Monday, September 7, 2009
Jacob Grimm on Nordic Religion
It seems to have been instilled by Nature into every people that it should keep itself closed-off and untouched by alien elements. It can only guard its tongue, its ethos, within a closed circle. Only as long as it flows between its own banks does a river keep its waters pure. All pristine strength and the undisturbed expression of its deepest instincts emanate from this center and we see our oldest language, poetry and legend assert this very characteristic. However, a river has not only to accept the streams which bring down fresh water to it from mountain and hill but must ultimately flow out into the wide waters of the ocean. Peoples border upon peoples, peaceful commerce, war and conquest merge their destinies. Such intermingling may bring unexpected results, the advantages of which must be weighed against the loss which suppression of the native elements brought about. Yet the language, poetry and religion of our forefathers were unable everywhere and at all times to guard themselves against the onset of what was foreign, and they have experienced the most shattering transformation through the conversion of the people to Christianity.
HEROES AND WISE WOMEN, ELVES AND GIANTS, THE HIGHEST BEING
Deities form the essence of all mythology. Ours were buried out of sight and had to be unearthed. Their traces were able to be discerned partly in names that stubbornly refused to be rooted out and yet offered only an empty sound and partly with changed shape in the fluid but more complete form of popular legend. Upon closer inspection, all individual deities appear to be emanations and segments of one single deity: the Gods as sky, the Goddesses as earth, the former as fathers, the latter as mothers, the Gods creating, ruling, leading, governing victory and fortune, air, fire and water—the Goddesses nourishing, spinning, cultivating the fields, beautiful, adorned and loving. In all German tongues the Highest Being has always with one accord been called by the general name: God. In curses and exclamations our people, from fear of desecrating God s name, resort to some modification of this, saying potz wetter or kotz wunder instead of "Gottes"—however, I cannot trace this practice back to our ancient speech. Some remarkable uses of the word "God" in our older language and that of the common people may also have a connection with pagan ideas. In Middle High German poems one encounters the expression for a hearty welcome. gote unde mir wilekomen ("Welcome to God and me" ). Upper Germany has retained this form of greeting to the present day. The Highest Being is conceived as omnipresent and is expected like a host to take the newcomer under his protection. In the same way the name of the omniscient emphasizes an affirmation of knowledge or ignorance: das weiz got unde ich = God and I know that. Poems of the Middle Ages attribute human passions to God: especially is He often described as in a condition of placidity and joy or again in the contrary state of wrath and vengeance. The former is favorable for the endowment of distinguished and happy men. It is an equally pagan sentiment that imputes to God a wish to gaze at human beauty or at whatever men do. In the Middle Ages a wicked man was called gote leide, a sorrow to God. There is a parallel formula which substitutes the sun for God and so heightens the pagan complexion. A man so accursed does not deserve to have the sun shine kindly upon him. Such a hostile relationship results now and then in a rebellious spirit in man which breaks forth in Promethean defiance and threats or even takes a practical turn. If the God denied the assistance prayed for, his image was flung into the river by the people, immersed in water or beaten. In the Carolingian romances we repeatedly come upon the incident of Karl (Charlemagne) threatening the deity that if his aid is denied, he will cast down his altars and make the Church with all its priests leave the land of the Franks. The all-governing God is at the same time the all-seeing, all-knowing, all- remembering. Hence it is said of fortunate men that God saw them and of unfortunate ones, that God forgot them. Among appellations are several which God has in common with worldly rulers: the name Father is above all conspicuous. In the Edda the name Alfödr (All Father) is applied to Odin as the father of all Gods, humans and created things. This compound may have sounded pagan. However, the idea of God the Father became more familiar to Christians than to pagans. Most epic formulas are taken from God's dwelling place, his omnipotence, omniscience and truth. Many other expressions are indisputably connected with the pagan way of thinking. Since the Gods are represented as dwelling on high, in the heavens, upon mountain heights, it is natural that individuals should have certain particular mountains and abodes consigned them.
WORSHIP AND SACRIFICE
Because the Gods show favor more often than wrath and men are happily disposed rather than oppressed by their own sins and faults, thanksgiving sacrifices were the earliest and most frequent, sacrifices out of expiation rarer, more poignant. What can be offered to the Gods from the plant realm is serene, innocent, but also less significant than animal sacrifice. The flowing blood, the life shed, seems to assert stronger binding and appeasing power. Animal sacrifices are natural to the warrior, hunter and shepherd, while the farmer will give grain and flowers. The great yearly festivals of the pagans allude to folk gatherings and popular courts. Human sacrifices absolve according to their nature and origin. A great misfortune, a serious crime, can only be conjured away and expunged through human blood. Sacrifices were made by all peoples of antiquity, there is undoubted evidence of this in Germany. As a rule, victims to be sacrificed were captive foes, purchased serfs or extreme criminals. On the other hand, the death penalty was rare or unheard of among the ancient peoples. In folk legends there are still traces of the sacrificing of children. Rare cases could even demand the death of a king's son and daughters, indeed of a king himself. Animal sacrifices were chiefly made as thanksgiving, but also as expiation and as such they often represent moderation in place of older human sacrifices. Only such animals were suitable whose flesh was fit for human consumption. It would have been inappropriate to offer the God a food which the sacrificers had themselves scorned. At the same time these sacrifices also appear as feasts. An allotted portion of the slaughtered animal was brought to the sacrifice, and the remainder cut in pieces, shared out and consumed by the assembly. The people entered as a result into fellowship with the holy sacrifice, just as the Gods were held to be joint feasters at their meal. It was commanded of kings that at great sacrifices they taste all foods. Superstitious people later still placed food at one side for the house spirits and dwarfs. In the oldest times chiefly horses seem to have been sacrificed, undoubtedly their flesh was universally eaten before the introduction of Christianity. Missionaries found nothing so repellent about the pagans, as the latter would not abandon the killing of horses and enjoying of their flesh. The cutting-off of the horse's head which was not eaten but dedicated to the God must not be overlooked in this connection. I believe that among all known sacrifices only those of the horse were celebrated at the nine year festivals. Among all animal sacrifices that of the horse was the most noble and the most solemn. Our forefathers had it in common with several Slavic and Finnish peoples, with Persians and Indians. The horse was held by them all to be a particularly sacred animal. Along with cattle, sacrifices of boars, pigs and rams were not rare; we are uncertain about other sacrificial animals. The dove was a Jewish and Christian animal sacrifice, cocks were offered by the Greeks to Aesculapius to heal an infected finger, and it was the custom in the Touraine to sacrifice a wild cock to Saint Christopher. Among game only edible beasts were sacrificial: deer, roes, wild pigs, but never wolves or foxes to whom even a ghostly nature is attributed. In paganism, wild animals seem to have been preferred for sacrifice. The animals dependent upon man, his house animals, have to suffer upon his death, with his sacrifice and punishment. Besides the sex, weight was certainly laid upon the color of the animal and white was favored most of all. One can imagine that the beast was decorated and embellished for sacrifice. Some details suggest that before sacrifice the animals were led around in the midst of the popular assembly. While the animal lost its life on the sacrificial stone, all the flowing blood was caught either in a specially arranged trench or in vessels. The holy tables and vessels and the participants were sprinkled with the sacrificial blood. Prophecies were probably made from the blood, and it is possible that a portion of it was mixed with beer or mead and drunk. The distribution of the pieces among the people was probably carried out by a priest. On great feast days the banquet was held directly during the popular assembly. Several reports reveal that the animal was transformed to ashes on the wood pile. Also no importance was attached to smoke offerings. The sweet incense of Christians was something new to the pagans. An animal blood sacrifice is more social, more universal; it was customary that the entire people of the community brought this. Fruit or flowers, milk or honey every household and even an individual could offer. These fruit offerings are therefore more isolated, more impoverished. History scarcely mentions this, but they have lasted all the longer and more firmly in folk custom. The farmer, when he cuts his corn, leaves a heap of ears standing to the God who blessed the corn, and decorates them with ribbons. Even now during the fruit harvest in Holstein, five or six apples are left hanging untouched on every tree, then the next crop prospers. At the solemn handing over of landed properties, branches with leaves, apples or nuts serve as signs of trade. To this also belongs the hanging of the image of the God with garlands, of a sacred tree or a sacrificial animal with leaves and flowers. In the Scandinavian sagas not the slightest trace of the latter is revealed. On Ascension day in more than one district of Germany the girls wind garlands of white and red flowers and hang them up in the kitchen or the stables over the cattle, until they are replaced the next year by fresh ones. Here pagan custom appears to have been transferred to Christian festivals: Just as it was a very ancient and widespread custom to leave back at a feast a portion of the food for the household Gods and in fact a dish with broth was placed for Berchta and Holda, the Gods were allowed to enjoy a festive drink. The drinker, before he enjoyed it himself, was accustomed to pour out something for the God or household spirits. Connected with this are Norwegian legends about Thor, who appears at weddings and accepts or empties enormous barrels of beer. It was the custom to honor an absent or dead person by mentioning them at the assembly and feast and downing a cup to their memory. In like manner as by observing this drinking custom which was continued into later time, research into pagan mythology will find it advantageous to study the designs used in baking which either still imitated the old idol's shape or retained the prescriptions of an offering. Thus, much which would not really be applicable in the offerings and customs of the people—the color of the animal, the leading around of the boar, the flowers, the drinking of toasts, even the shape of cakes, is still a memory of the offerings of paganism. Besides the prayers and offerings, an essential part of the pagan cult must still be emphasized: the solemn carrying or leading around of the images of the Gods. The deity was not to stay in only one place but show its presence through the entire circumference of the land. Thus Frau Nerthus drove around, thus Fro [Freya] moved from place to place in the Spring, thus the sacred ship, the sacred plough, were led about. Holda, Berchta, and all similar beings held their walk at appointed times of the year, to the joy of pagans, to the horror of Christians. Even Wodan's wild hunt can be so interpreted. A comparison can be made of customs of public law, the riding around of newly crowned kings through the streets of the land, the solemn recording of paths, the beating of the bounds, at which priests and images of the Gods will have been present in ancient times. After the conversion to Christianity, the Church also allowed such processions, except that an image of Mary or other sacred images were carried, namely when drought, crop failure, sickness or war had broken out, in order to cause rain, fertility of the fields, recovery from illness and gaining of victory. Even at the outbreak of fire sacred images were applied against this.
PLACES OF WORSHIP
A temple is simultaneously a wood. What we think of as a walled building, merges, the farther back we go, into a sacred place untouched by human hands, in a grove and enclosed by dense trees. There the God dwells, veiling his form in the rustling foliage of the boughs. There is the place at which the hunter has to present him with the game he has killed and the herdsman his horses, oxen and rams. I am not maintaining that this forest worship exhausts all the conceptions which our ancestors had formed of the deity and its dwelling-place. It was only the principle. Here and there a God may haunt a mountain top, a cave in the rocks, a river. But the solemn general worship by the people had its seat in the grove. And nowhere could it have found a better one: it was customary with many peoples. At a time when crude beginnings were all that existed of the builder's art, the human mind must have been aroused to a higher devotion by the sight of lofty trees under an open sky than it could ever feel inside the stunted structures reared by unskilled hands. When, long afterwards, the architecture peculiar to the Germans reached its perfection, did it not in its boldest creations aim at reproducing the soaring trees of the forest? Would not the childlike imaginative power of primeval times have felt itself estranged by the disproportion of poorly carved or painted images of the God which it imagined as enthroned on the leafy top of a sacred tree? In the blowing of the wind, under the shade of primeval forests the soul of man felt itself filled by the presence of the ruling deities. What a deep influence forest life had from of old on all circumstances of our people is shown by the preservation of the Guilds of the Marches (Markgenossenschaften). Marka, the word from which they bear their name, first signified forest and then also boundary. In the course of centuries and until the introduction of Christianity the custom was served of worshipping the deity in the sacred forests and trees. Among the Saxons and Frisians the worship in the groves lasted far longer. In various parts of Lower Saxony and Westphalia traces of sacred oaks have been preserved until recent times, to which the people showed a half-pagan, half-Christian reverence. I am inclined to trace back the naming of sacred forests, which appears almost everywhere in Germany, to paganism. One would hardly have called the forests sacred after Christian churches which were built in them and usually no such church is found in the forests. Even less can the naming be explained from the prohibited royal forests of the Middle Ages. Conversely these forest preserves seem themselves to have emanated from pagan groves and in place of the cult appears the law of the king who withdrew the sacred forest from the use and common ownership of the people. Such forests were also, in many places, a refuge for malefactors. In the course of centuries this ancient forest worship became displaced -- more with some peoples, less with others -- in favor of the erection of temples. We see all Christian missionaries eagerly lay the axe to the sacred trees of the pagans and set their temples on fire. It would almost seem as if the unfortunate people were not even asked for their agreement and only the rising smoke announced to them the broken power of their Gods. But with closer study of the circumstances it is revealed from the less boastful accounts that neither the pagans were so cowardly and simple nor Christians so thoughtless. Boniface resolved to cut down the thunder oaks only after careful consultation with the already converted Hessians and in their presence. The Thuringian king's daughter would never have halted her horse and given the command to set fire to the Frankish temple, if her followers had not been numerous enough to oppose the pagans. It is expressly remarked in most reports that in place of the pagan tree or temple a church was erected. In this way the customs of the people were spared and it was made credible that the ancient sacredness of the place had departed but henceforth was dependent on the presence of the true God. At the same time one discovers from this the cause of the almost total lack of remains of pagan monuments. They were either leveled to the ground in order to build a Christian church over them or their walls and halls were even used for the latter. One may restrain oneself from having a high opinion of the architecture of the pagan Germans, but they must have understood how to arrange appreciable masses of stone and to cement them firmly. Evidence of this is provided by the burial mounds and places of sacrifice preserved in Scandinavia and partly still in Friesland and Saxony, from which some important conclusions can be drawn about the old pagan worship of God. On many German mountains traces of Gods and heroes are found which allude to ancient places of worship: on the Taunus of Brunnhilde, on the Harz of Gibich and Dietrich.
PRIESTHOOD
The German priests were active as guardians of divine and worldly law, together with religious worship and popular courts. In campaigns by the army they alone controlled discipline, not the generals, since the entire war was conducted as if in the presence of the deity. From the sacred grove they took with them the images and insignia into the field. If the future were to be predicted from the neighing of the publicly maintained white horse, priests accompanied the sacred wagon and authorized the proceedings. Only the priests might touch the wagon of the deity; the latter's approaching presence was recognized by him, he accompanied it respectfully and ultimately led it back into the sacred abode. The rareness of records which mention the priests were a reason why their office was long overlooked. Undoubtedly, they were also responsible for the uttering of solemn prayers, the killing of sacrificial animals, the consecration of the dead, perhaps also of marriages and the administering of oaths. The Nordic priest's office reached deeply into the practice and guardianship of the law. Gestures and postures necessary for certain legal transactions are reminiscent of many priestly rituals during offerings and prayers. In such a capacity the priests seem to have had an important influence on the people while there is little mention of their political influence on the kings' courts. Even after the introduction of Christianity the Icelandic judges retained the name and many powers of the pagan priests. I have not come across any references to the clothing worn by the Northern priests. Among many Aryan peoples the priest's robe was of white color. Was the office of a poet connected with the latter? Even by Christian poets, after the conversion, one or other thing is still related which has been passed on to us by pagan Skalds. History has not preserved the name of any vates, a singer and soothsayer at the same time, although soothsaying was the office of the priest, and the names of several prophetesses are known. Tacitus mentions the Veleda as prisoners in the triumphant march of Vespasian. The Nordic sources stress the priestly office of women less than their gift of prophecy. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sunday, August 30, 2009
Languages at the Time of Jesus
by Deanna Gallo
Various languages were spoken in Roman-occupied Palestine during the first century AD, which was the world and time of Jesus. The most prominent of these languages were Aramaic, Hebrew and Koine Greek. The Latin spoken by the occupying Romans held only a minor place in comparison with these three languages.
ARAMAIC
Aramaic is a Semitic language, related to both Hebrew and Arabic. This was the language spoken originally in Mesopotamia, and as empires rose and fell in the millennium before the birth of Jesus, the Aramaic language was used as the vehicle of communication among people of different nations, eventually spreading as far west as Egypt and becoming the lingua franca of the entire area.
Many scholars believe that the Jewish people first acquired Aramaic during the years of the Babylonian captivity, and that centuries later, their descendants brought Aramaic with them into Israel. Parts of the Old Testament, in fact, are written in Aramaic rather than Hebrew.
In the third century BC, when Greek began overtaking Aramaic as the dominant language in much of the region, Aramaic was still extensively spoken in Palestine. By the first century, it had diverged into an array of dialects, which some historical linguists prefer to consider separate Aramaic-based languages.
Aramaic is thought to have been the native language of Jesus.
HEBREW
Like Aramaic, Hebrew is a Semitic language, and one with writings that date back to the tenth century BC. Hebrew is the traditional language of the Jewish people, and has always been the language of prayer and worship.
There is some debate among language historians over the precise status of Hebrew during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Some scholars claim that Aramaic was the day-to-day language of the Jewish people during this time, and that Hebrew was used mainly for religious study and liturgical purposes. Other scholars disagree, and point to newer evidence suggesting that Hebrew functioned as a living language alongside Aramaic until the end of the Roman period.
It is not known for certain whether or not Jesus spoke Hebrew. Many religious scholars claim that he did, and they support this claim by citing his knowledge of Hebrew scripture and theology.
KOINE GREEK
Koine refers to the common dialect of Greek, which, beginning in the third century BC, became the lingua franca for the entire region conquered by Alexander the Great. Koine Greek remained the common trade language of the region during Jesus' time; it was widely spoken in Palestine, and even the Romans made use of it in their administration of the province. It is thought likely that Jesus would have had some familiarity with this language.
A few decades after the crucifixion, the books of the New Testament were composed in Koine Greek, which made them accessible to people of many nations.
LATIN
Latin was the language of the occupying Roman army. However, in Palestine the status of Latin was different from its status in the Romanized provinces of Western Europe, where Latin came to displace the native languages altogether. In the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, Latin did not have great influence over the populace and never held the role of a dominant language. Most of the people who lived in the Roman province of Palestine during the life of Jesus did not speak Latin.
Various languages were spoken in Roman-occupied Palestine during the first century AD, which was the world and time of Jesus. The most prominent of these languages were Aramaic, Hebrew and Koine Greek. The Latin spoken by the occupying Romans held only a minor place in comparison with these three languages.
ARAMAIC
Aramaic is a Semitic language, related to both Hebrew and Arabic. This was the language spoken originally in Mesopotamia, and as empires rose and fell in the millennium before the birth of Jesus, the Aramaic language was used as the vehicle of communication among people of different nations, eventually spreading as far west as Egypt and becoming the lingua franca of the entire area.
Many scholars believe that the Jewish people first acquired Aramaic during the years of the Babylonian captivity, and that centuries later, their descendants brought Aramaic with them into Israel. Parts of the Old Testament, in fact, are written in Aramaic rather than Hebrew.
In the third century BC, when Greek began overtaking Aramaic as the dominant language in much of the region, Aramaic was still extensively spoken in Palestine. By the first century, it had diverged into an array of dialects, which some historical linguists prefer to consider separate Aramaic-based languages.
Aramaic is thought to have been the native language of Jesus.
HEBREW
Like Aramaic, Hebrew is a Semitic language, and one with writings that date back to the tenth century BC. Hebrew is the traditional language of the Jewish people, and has always been the language of prayer and worship.
There is some debate among language historians over the precise status of Hebrew during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Some scholars claim that Aramaic was the day-to-day language of the Jewish people during this time, and that Hebrew was used mainly for religious study and liturgical purposes. Other scholars disagree, and point to newer evidence suggesting that Hebrew functioned as a living language alongside Aramaic until the end of the Roman period.
It is not known for certain whether or not Jesus spoke Hebrew. Many religious scholars claim that he did, and they support this claim by citing his knowledge of Hebrew scripture and theology.
KOINE GREEK
Koine refers to the common dialect of Greek, which, beginning in the third century BC, became the lingua franca for the entire region conquered by Alexander the Great. Koine Greek remained the common trade language of the region during Jesus' time; it was widely spoken in Palestine, and even the Romans made use of it in their administration of the province. It is thought likely that Jesus would have had some familiarity with this language.
A few decades after the crucifixion, the books of the New Testament were composed in Koine Greek, which made them accessible to people of many nations.
LATIN
Latin was the language of the occupying Roman army. However, in Palestine the status of Latin was different from its status in the Romanized provinces of Western Europe, where Latin came to displace the native languages altogether. In the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, Latin did not have great influence over the populace and never held the role of a dominant language. Most of the people who lived in the Roman province of Palestine during the life of Jesus did not speak Latin.
STONE ‘SHIP’ MAY BE VIKING BURIAL MOUND
The Ancient American, Volume 1, Issue 6
By Carol Bass
An unusual mound of stones in the shape of a ship which could date back to Viking settlements in the New World has been discovered in an area forest. History experts who have visited the site suspect the 65-foot stone structure may be a large “cairn,” an ancient European burial site constructed for the dead by the Viking and Celtic cultures. The exact location of site, which is in Windham County, is being kept under wraps to avoid the possibility of vandalism.
When first sighted through undergrowth, the ‘cairn’ appears to be just another short stretch of old New England stone wall, but on closer inspection, the boat shape of the stone pile becomes immediately apparent. The ‘cairn’ is close to 50 feet long and at its widest point measures 30-40 feet wide, and is four feet high. It is a near exact stone replica of a New England dory, a narrow at the bow and stern, with a very wide-mid-section. It is in fairly good shape and is only slightly damaged on one side where a growing tree has caused part of it crumble.
The structure was discovered by photographers Virginia and William Welch of Hampton. The couple saved it from near demolition by officials who have been planning to reforest the area. The state Department of Environmental Protection has now flagged the site to protect it for further observation and study.
The site has been viewed by several regional historical societies, including the Early Sites Research Society of Rowley, Mass., and the Gungywump Society of Noank. Officials from the societies agree that the site is ‘Nordic’ in nature, although no definitive conclusion has been reached about the origin of the artifact.
All who have viewed the site, however, agree with David Barron, president of the Gungywump Society, the structure is ‘very definitely not just a pile of stones. It was deliberately laid, deliberately set out, and has a deliberate plan to it.”
The Gungywump Society is a group of avocational archaeologists and historians who study historical phenomena throughout the state.
The mounds origins remain unknown now, although it is known that Vikings were in Canada. Barron said he wouldn’t suggest the mound is Viking in origin, because he said, “There is no evidence yet beyond the fact that it is unique and in the shape of a boat.”
Welch noted that the centerpiece of the structure, which he described as a ‘a slab that appears to have been standing,” resembles European burial places, or ‘cairns’.
This particular cairn, if that is what the structure is, is unusually large, according to Barron.
The presence of Viking in the New World before Columbus has been a debatable topic for years. It is agreed that the Vikings visited ancient Russia, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, Iceland and Greenland.
Experts who have visited the Windham Country site are cautious to theorize about its origins. They all agree with Welch, however, that it is ‘something that appears to be very old. It’s an artifact that goes far beyond the English-Colonial period,” he said.
“Our main objective right now is to keep it low key Riggio said, “One of the problems we have today is that field, stone is in such high demand there pillaging of old stone walls and their stones get robbed every day.” Welch thinks the structure has at least ‘superficial similarities’ to European cairns which commemorate burial sits.”
America's Viking Heritage
Frank Joseph
(The Ancient American, Volume 1, Issue 6)
Through the ominous visor of the helmet feature on this month’s cover once peered the eyes of a Norse warrior. Found at a Swedish site belonging to the 7th century A.D., it predates the generally accepted beginning of the so-called “Viking Age,” 200 years later. For unknown millennia before, culturally related Germanic peoples inhabited the lands of the Baltic and Scandinavia, steadily growing in the number of settlements, until the relationship between burgeoning population and shrinking living space made the Norse look beyond Northern Europe, around the turn of the 9th Century . It was then that they began referring to th4emselves as “Vikings”, or “Bay-raiders”, after their early sorties among the fjords of their own homelands. And, while the title persisted for the duration of the Viking Age, the Norse very quickly expanded their activities far beyond local bays and inlets. Their great courage and incomparable long-ships took them throughout Russia to North Africa, as far as Ireland, Greenland, Iceland and . . . America.
Most salaried historians have long demonstrated a knee-jerk rejection of any notion that Vikings actually landed here, dismissing such embarrassing suggestions as many tall tales. Even after the critics were forced to acknowledge 40 years ago that a northern Newfoundland site, L’Anse aux Meadows, yielded physical evidence of an 11th Century Norse settlement, they continue to deny the Vikings any farther. Clearly, Establishment academics are clinging to a deteriorating position. The two widely this issue are certainly authentic artifacts which confirm Viking impact on America. The very text of the Kensington Runestone establishes its authenticity, even down the smallest detail. For example, the runic author describes his Minnesota location as an “island”. Nowhere in the broad vicinity of its discovery does the area remotely resemble anything like an island. Yet, at the same time of the date inscribed on the Stone, 1362, the present location of Kensington was an island surrounded by a shallow lake that has long since vanished, a fact not recognized until long after the deaths of all persons who found the Stone in the late 19th Century. Moreover, modern stone-carvers have affirmed that the Runestone was inscribed by an expert mason, while the artifact’s discoverers were only simple farmers, with no such skills.
A contrary view is taken by rune-researcher, Jane Sibley. Kensington SAtone is not authentically Viking. But unlike other critics, Jane makes a provocative presentation of new evidence and challenges the defenders of the runestone to find convincing responses. Whatever we may think of her assessment, her advocacy of new testing for the controversial artifacts points future research in the right direction.
Saturday, August 29, 2009
The Development of the Germanic Languages
Deanna Gallo
First, let us define the Germanic languages. The Germanic languages are a sub-family of languages which descend from the large Indo-European language family. The Germanic languages are subdivided into three groups. The Western Germanic family includes English, Dutch, German, Afrikaans and the lesser-known Frisian. The North Germanic languages are Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic. A third group, East Germanic, which included Gothic, is now extinct.
The Proto-Germanic dialect of Indo-European that would in time give rise to the various Germanic languages probably emerged in a small area of Northern Europe around 2500 BC. Proto-Germanic retained much of the grammar characteristic of Indo-European; for example, grammatical gender and the inflectional system of nouns and adjectives.
At the same time, however, Proto-Germanic differs from the other Indo-European languages in specific and regular ways. Grimm's Law describes the sound-shift of several Indo-European consonants into their Germanic forms. The Indo-European p-sound, for example, becomes the sound f in all Germanic languages. Among other notable changes, k becomes the Germanic h, and d becomes t.
The Germanic languages are also characterized by their dual system of verbs, which is preserved in English today. So-called weak verbs form their past tense by the addition of a d or t sound, as in the English walked and helped. Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the verb internally, as in sang and brought.
By 500 BC, Germanic speakers had spread through much of Northern Europe, and the language had by this time diverged into western, northern and eastern dialects. It is believed that at this time these dialects were mutually intelligible. Runic inscriptions made around this time allow linguists to study the Germanic dialects. It is around this time, also, that the first written records of the Germanic peoples appear; the Roman historian Tacitus wrote an account of Germanic customs and catalogued the geographical location of several tribes.
What is known as the Migration Period occurred between 300 and 700 AD, and the Germanic dialects were taken into new lands. In many of these places, such as Ireland, France and Spain, Germanic eventually gave way to other, more dominant languages. But in other places, Germanic established itself as the predominant language. The Vikings, speaking a Germanic dialect known as Old Norse, brought their language into Iceland, where it is spoken today in a form not much different from the original Old Norse. In England, three Germanic-speaking tribes brought their dialects, which would soon merge to become Anglo-Saxon, or Old English.
By the tenth century AD, the various Germanic languages had evolved to a point where they were no longer mutually intelligible. Around this time, the Eastern Germanic languages were assimilated and soon disappeared. The principal northern dialect, Old Norse, gave rise to the earliest recognizable forms of Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. And the main western dialects were now Old English, Old High German, and Old Franconian, which would later emerge as Dutch.
These now fully divergent languages would continue their separate development throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period, and would finally become the modern Germanic languages.
First, let us define the Germanic languages. The Germanic languages are a sub-family of languages which descend from the large Indo-European language family. The Germanic languages are subdivided into three groups. The Western Germanic family includes English, Dutch, German, Afrikaans and the lesser-known Frisian. The North Germanic languages are Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic. A third group, East Germanic, which included Gothic, is now extinct.
The Proto-Germanic dialect of Indo-European that would in time give rise to the various Germanic languages probably emerged in a small area of Northern Europe around 2500 BC. Proto-Germanic retained much of the grammar characteristic of Indo-European; for example, grammatical gender and the inflectional system of nouns and adjectives.
At the same time, however, Proto-Germanic differs from the other Indo-European languages in specific and regular ways. Grimm's Law describes the sound-shift of several Indo-European consonants into their Germanic forms. The Indo-European p-sound, for example, becomes the sound f in all Germanic languages. Among other notable changes, k becomes the Germanic h, and d becomes t.
The Germanic languages are also characterized by their dual system of verbs, which is preserved in English today. So-called weak verbs form their past tense by the addition of a d or t sound, as in the English walked and helped. Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the verb internally, as in sang and brought.
By 500 BC, Germanic speakers had spread through much of Northern Europe, and the language had by this time diverged into western, northern and eastern dialects. It is believed that at this time these dialects were mutually intelligible. Runic inscriptions made around this time allow linguists to study the Germanic dialects. It is around this time, also, that the first written records of the Germanic peoples appear; the Roman historian Tacitus wrote an account of Germanic customs and catalogued the geographical location of several tribes.
What is known as the Migration Period occurred between 300 and 700 AD, and the Germanic dialects were taken into new lands. In many of these places, such as Ireland, France and Spain, Germanic eventually gave way to other, more dominant languages. But in other places, Germanic established itself as the predominant language. The Vikings, speaking a Germanic dialect known as Old Norse, brought their language into Iceland, where it is spoken today in a form not much different from the original Old Norse. In England, three Germanic-speaking tribes brought their dialects, which would soon merge to become Anglo-Saxon, or Old English.
By the tenth century AD, the various Germanic languages had evolved to a point where they were no longer mutually intelligible. Around this time, the Eastern Germanic languages were assimilated and soon disappeared. The principal northern dialect, Old Norse, gave rise to the earliest recognizable forms of Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. And the main western dialects were now Old English, Old High German, and Old Franconian, which would later emerge as Dutch.
These now fully divergent languages would continue their separate development throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period, and would finally become the modern Germanic languages.
Tuesday, July 21, 2009
Vikings in Greenland
Norse colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th century, when Norse sailors (often referred to as Vikings) explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic, including the northeastern fringes of North America.
While the Norse colony in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years, the continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies. While voyages, for example to fetch timber, are likely to have occurred for some time, there is no evidence of enduring Norse settlements in North America.[1]
Main article: History of Greenland
According to the Sagas of Icelanders, Norsemen from Iceland first settled Greenland in the 980s. Erik the Red (Old Norse: Eiríkr rauði), having been banished from Iceland for manslaughter, explored the uninhabited southwestern coast of Greenland during the three years of his banishment.[2][3] He made plans to entice settlers to the area, even purposefully choosing the name Greenland to attract potential colonists, saying "that people would be more eager to go there because the land had a good name".[4] The inner reaches of one long fjord, named Eiriksfjord after him, was where he eventually established his estate Brattahlid. He issued tracts of land to his followers.[5]
Map of the Eastern Settlement, covering approximately the modern municipalities of Qaqortoq, Narssaq and Nanortalik. Eiriksfjord (Erik's fjord) and his farm Brattahlid are shown, as is the location of the bishopric at Gardar.
At its peak, the colony consisted of two settlements, the Eastern and the Western Settlement, with a total population of between 3000 and 5000; at least 400 farms have been identified by archaeologists.[5] Norse Greenland had a bishopric (at Garðar) and exported walrus ivory, furs, rope, sheep, whale or seal blubber, live animals such as polar bears, and cattle hides. In 1261, the population accepted the overlordship of the Norwegian King although it continued to have its own law. In 1380, the Norwegian Kingdom entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark.
The colony began to decline in the 1300s. The Western Settlement was abandoned around 1350 and by 1378 there was no longer a bishop at Garðar. After a marriage was recorded in 1408, no written records mention the settlers. It is probable that the Eastern Settlement was defunct by the late 1400s, although no exact date has been established. The most recent radiocarbon date found in Norse settlements as of 2002 was 1430 A.D. (+/- 15 years). Several theories have been advanced to explain the decline. The Little Ice Age of this period would have made it harder to travel between Greenland and Europe, as well as making it more difficult for the Greenlanders to farm; in addition, Greenlandic ivory may have been supplanted in European markets by cheaper ivory from Africa. Despite the loss of contact with the Greenlanders, the Norwegian-Danish crown continued to consider Greenland a possession and the existence of the island was not forgotten by European geographers. It is also possible that the lands west of Greenland were remembered.
Not knowing whether the old Norse civilization remained in Greenland or not—and worried that if it did, it would still be Catholic 200 years after the Scandinavian homelands had experienced the Reformation—a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland in 1721. Though this expedition found no surviving Europeans, it marked the beginning of Denmark's assertion of sovereignty over the island; see Danish colonization of the Americas.
Vinland and L'Anse aux Meadows
Main articles: Vinland and L'Anse aux Meadows
According to the Icelandic sagas ("Eirik the Red's Saga" and the "Saga of the Greenlanders"—chapters of the Hauksbók and the Flatey Book), the Norse started to explore lands to the west of Greenland only a few years after the Greenland settlements were established. In 985 while sailing from Iceland to Greenland with a migration fleet consisting of 400-700 settlers[5][6] and 25 other ships (14 of which completed the journey), a merchant named Bjarni Herjólfsson was blown off course and after three days sailing he sighted land west of the fleet. Bjarni was only interested in finding his father's farm, but he described his discovery to Leif Ericson who explored the area in more detail and planted a small settlement fifteen years later.[5]
The sagas describe three separate areas discovered during this exploration: Helluland, which means "land of the flat stones"; Markland, "the land of forests", definitely of interest to settlers in Greenland where there were few trees; and Vinland, "the land of wine" (or as suggested by modern linguists "the land of meadows"), found somewhere south of Markland. It was in Vinland that the settlement described in the sagas was planted.
All four of Erik the Red's children were to visit the North American continent, his sons Leif, Thorvald and Thorstein and their sister Freydis. One of the sons, Thorvald, died there.
Leif's winter camp
Using the routes, landmarks, currents, rocks, and winds that Bjarni had described to him, Leif sailed some 1,800 miles to the New World with a crew of 35—sailing the same knarr Bjarni had used to make the voyage. He described Helluland as "level and wooded, with broad white beaches wherever they went and a gently sloping shoreline."[5] Leif and others had wanted his father, Erik the Red, to lead this expedition and talked him into it. However as Erik attempted to join his son Leif on the voyage towards the continent of North America, his horse slipped on the wet rocks near the shoreline and he was injured and thus stayed behind.[5]
Leif wintered in 1001, probably at Cape Bauld on the northern tip of Newfoundland, and his German foster father Tyrkir (de) was there found drunk of what the saga describes as "wine". Squashberries, gooseberries, and cranberries all grew wild in the area. There are varying explanations for Leif apparently describing fermented berries as "wine". In Old Norse, there could be two different meanings for the word "vin" depending on whether a short i or long í is used. A long í in the word "vin" could mean "wine", while a short i could mean "pasture", and linguistic research indicates that the pasture or meadow argument is probably the most logical in the name Vinland. Interestingly, in modern Icelandic, "vin" with a short 'i' means "oasis". Leif spent another winter at "Leifsbodarna" without conflict, and sailed back to Brattahlid in Greenland to assume filial duties for his father.
Thorvald's voyage
In 1004, Leif's brother Thorvald Ericson sailed with a crew of 30 men to Newfoundland and spent the following winter at Leif's camp. In the spring, Thorvald attacked nine of the local people, who were sleeping under three skin-covered canoes. The ninth victim escaped and soon came back to the Norse camp with a force. Thorvald himself was killed by an arrow that succeeded in passing through the barricade. Although brief hostilities ensued, the Norse explorers stayed another winter and left the following spring. Subsequently another of Leif's brothers, Thorstein, sailed to the New World to retrieve his dead brother's body, but he only stayed for one summer.[5]
Karlsefni's expedition
It was in 1009 that Thorfinn Karlsefni, also known as "Thorfinn the Valiant", supplied three ships with livestock and 160 men and women[6] (although another source sets the number of settlers at 250). After a cruel winter, he headed south and landed at Straumfjord, but later moved to Straumsöy, possibly because the current was stronger there. A sign of peaceful relations between the indigenous peoples and the Norsemen is noted here; the two sides bartered with furs and gray squirrel skins for milk and red cloth, which the natives tied around their heads as a sort of headdress.
There are conflicting stories but one account states that a bull belonging to Karlsefni came storming out of the wood, so frightening the natives that they ran to their skin-boats and rowed away. They returned three days later, in force. The natives used catapults, hoisting "a large sphere on a pole; it was dark blue in color" and about the size of a sheep's belly,[7] which flew over the heads of the men and made an ugly din.[7] The Norsemen retreated. Leif Ericson's half-sister Freydís Eiríksdóttir was pregnant and unable to keep up with the retreating Norsemen. She called out to them to stop fleeing from "such pitiful wretches", adding that if she had weapons, she could do better than that. Freydís seized the sword belonging to a man who had been killed by the natives. She pulled one of her breasts out of her bodice and struck it with the sword, frightening the natives, who fled.[7]
No permanent colonies
Territories and voyages of the Vikings
Settlements in continental North America aimed to exploit natural resources such as furs and in particular lumber, which was in short supply in Greenland due to deforestation.[8] It is unclear why the short-term settlements did not become permanent, though it was in part due to hostile relations with the indigenous peoples, referred to as Skrælings by the Norse. Nevertheless, it appears that sporadic voyages to Markland for forages, timber, and trade with the locals could have lasted as long as 400 years.[9][10]
Evidence of continuing trips includes the Maine Penny, a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign (1066-80) found in a Native American archaeological site in the U.S. state of Maine, suggesting an exchange between the Norse and the Native Americans late in or after the 11th century; and an entry in the Icelandic Annals from 1347 which refers to a small Greenlandic vessel with a crew of eighteen that arrived in Iceland while attempting to return to Greenland from Markland with a load of timber.[11] In addition, Norse materials have been excavated in several Inuit communities.
Aftermath
For some centuries after Christopher Columbus' voyages opened the Americas to large-scale colonization by Europeans, it was unclear whether these stories represented real voyages by the Norse to North America. The sagas were first taken seriously when in 1837 the Danish antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn pointed out the possibility for a Norse settlement in or voyages to North America.
The Skálholt-map
North America, by the name Winland, was first mentioned in written sources in a work by Adam of Bremen from approximately 1075. It was not until the 13th and 14th centuries that the most important works about North America and the early Norse activities there, namely the Sagas of Icelanders, were put into writing.
The question was definitively settled in the 1960s when a Norse settlement was excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland by the archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and her husband, outdoorsman and author Helge Ingstad. The location of the various lands described in the sagas is still unclear however. Many historians identify Helluland with Baffin Island and Markland with Labrador. The location of Vinland is a thornier question. Most believe that the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement is the Vinland settlement described in the sagas; others argue that the sagas depict Vinland as being warmer than Newfoundland and that it therefore lay farther south.
Hare Indian dogs, as illustrated in ''Fauna Boreali-americana, Or, The Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America, 1829
Purported runestones have been found in North America, most famously the Kensington Runestone, that are thought by some to be artifacts from further Norse exploration, although they are typically considered to be hoaxes. There are two maps depicting North America, "The Vinland map", that some believe is related to Norse exploration, although it is considered to be a modern forgery, and the Skálholt Map, made by an Icelandic teacher in the year 1570.
The Hare Indian dog of the banks of the Mackenzie River and Great Bear Lake are thought by some to have originated from crossbreedings between native Tahltan Bear Dogs and Icelandic breeds brought by the viking explorers.[12]
While the Norse colony in Greenland lasted for almost 500 years, the continental North American settlements were small and did not develop into permanent colonies. While voyages, for example to fetch timber, are likely to have occurred for some time, there is no evidence of enduring Norse settlements in North America.[1]
Main article: History of Greenland
According to the Sagas of Icelanders, Norsemen from Iceland first settled Greenland in the 980s. Erik the Red (Old Norse: Eiríkr rauði), having been banished from Iceland for manslaughter, explored the uninhabited southwestern coast of Greenland during the three years of his banishment.[2][3] He made plans to entice settlers to the area, even purposefully choosing the name Greenland to attract potential colonists, saying "that people would be more eager to go there because the land had a good name".[4] The inner reaches of one long fjord, named Eiriksfjord after him, was where he eventually established his estate Brattahlid. He issued tracts of land to his followers.[5]
Map of the Eastern Settlement, covering approximately the modern municipalities of Qaqortoq, Narssaq and Nanortalik. Eiriksfjord (Erik's fjord) and his farm Brattahlid are shown, as is the location of the bishopric at Gardar.
At its peak, the colony consisted of two settlements, the Eastern and the Western Settlement, with a total population of between 3000 and 5000; at least 400 farms have been identified by archaeologists.[5] Norse Greenland had a bishopric (at Garðar) and exported walrus ivory, furs, rope, sheep, whale or seal blubber, live animals such as polar bears, and cattle hides. In 1261, the population accepted the overlordship of the Norwegian King although it continued to have its own law. In 1380, the Norwegian Kingdom entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark.
The colony began to decline in the 1300s. The Western Settlement was abandoned around 1350 and by 1378 there was no longer a bishop at Garðar. After a marriage was recorded in 1408, no written records mention the settlers. It is probable that the Eastern Settlement was defunct by the late 1400s, although no exact date has been established. The most recent radiocarbon date found in Norse settlements as of 2002 was 1430 A.D. (+/- 15 years). Several theories have been advanced to explain the decline. The Little Ice Age of this period would have made it harder to travel between Greenland and Europe, as well as making it more difficult for the Greenlanders to farm; in addition, Greenlandic ivory may have been supplanted in European markets by cheaper ivory from Africa. Despite the loss of contact with the Greenlanders, the Norwegian-Danish crown continued to consider Greenland a possession and the existence of the island was not forgotten by European geographers. It is also possible that the lands west of Greenland were remembered.
Not knowing whether the old Norse civilization remained in Greenland or not—and worried that if it did, it would still be Catholic 200 years after the Scandinavian homelands had experienced the Reformation—a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland in 1721. Though this expedition found no surviving Europeans, it marked the beginning of Denmark's assertion of sovereignty over the island; see Danish colonization of the Americas.
Vinland and L'Anse aux Meadows
Main articles: Vinland and L'Anse aux Meadows
According to the Icelandic sagas ("Eirik the Red's Saga" and the "Saga of the Greenlanders"—chapters of the Hauksbók and the Flatey Book), the Norse started to explore lands to the west of Greenland only a few years after the Greenland settlements were established. In 985 while sailing from Iceland to Greenland with a migration fleet consisting of 400-700 settlers[5][6] and 25 other ships (14 of which completed the journey), a merchant named Bjarni Herjólfsson was blown off course and after three days sailing he sighted land west of the fleet. Bjarni was only interested in finding his father's farm, but he described his discovery to Leif Ericson who explored the area in more detail and planted a small settlement fifteen years later.[5]
The sagas describe three separate areas discovered during this exploration: Helluland, which means "land of the flat stones"; Markland, "the land of forests", definitely of interest to settlers in Greenland where there were few trees; and Vinland, "the land of wine" (or as suggested by modern linguists "the land of meadows"), found somewhere south of Markland. It was in Vinland that the settlement described in the sagas was planted.
All four of Erik the Red's children were to visit the North American continent, his sons Leif, Thorvald and Thorstein and their sister Freydis. One of the sons, Thorvald, died there.
Leif's winter camp
Using the routes, landmarks, currents, rocks, and winds that Bjarni had described to him, Leif sailed some 1,800 miles to the New World with a crew of 35—sailing the same knarr Bjarni had used to make the voyage. He described Helluland as "level and wooded, with broad white beaches wherever they went and a gently sloping shoreline."[5] Leif and others had wanted his father, Erik the Red, to lead this expedition and talked him into it. However as Erik attempted to join his son Leif on the voyage towards the continent of North America, his horse slipped on the wet rocks near the shoreline and he was injured and thus stayed behind.[5]
Leif wintered in 1001, probably at Cape Bauld on the northern tip of Newfoundland, and his German foster father Tyrkir (de) was there found drunk of what the saga describes as "wine". Squashberries, gooseberries, and cranberries all grew wild in the area. There are varying explanations for Leif apparently describing fermented berries as "wine". In Old Norse, there could be two different meanings for the word "vin" depending on whether a short i or long í is used. A long í in the word "vin" could mean "wine", while a short i could mean "pasture", and linguistic research indicates that the pasture or meadow argument is probably the most logical in the name Vinland. Interestingly, in modern Icelandic, "vin" with a short 'i' means "oasis". Leif spent another winter at "Leifsbodarna" without conflict, and sailed back to Brattahlid in Greenland to assume filial duties for his father.
Thorvald's voyage
In 1004, Leif's brother Thorvald Ericson sailed with a crew of 30 men to Newfoundland and spent the following winter at Leif's camp. In the spring, Thorvald attacked nine of the local people, who were sleeping under three skin-covered canoes. The ninth victim escaped and soon came back to the Norse camp with a force. Thorvald himself was killed by an arrow that succeeded in passing through the barricade. Although brief hostilities ensued, the Norse explorers stayed another winter and left the following spring. Subsequently another of Leif's brothers, Thorstein, sailed to the New World to retrieve his dead brother's body, but he only stayed for one summer.[5]
Karlsefni's expedition
It was in 1009 that Thorfinn Karlsefni, also known as "Thorfinn the Valiant", supplied three ships with livestock and 160 men and women[6] (although another source sets the number of settlers at 250). After a cruel winter, he headed south and landed at Straumfjord, but later moved to Straumsöy, possibly because the current was stronger there. A sign of peaceful relations between the indigenous peoples and the Norsemen is noted here; the two sides bartered with furs and gray squirrel skins for milk and red cloth, which the natives tied around their heads as a sort of headdress.
There are conflicting stories but one account states that a bull belonging to Karlsefni came storming out of the wood, so frightening the natives that they ran to their skin-boats and rowed away. They returned three days later, in force. The natives used catapults, hoisting "a large sphere on a pole; it was dark blue in color" and about the size of a sheep's belly,[7] which flew over the heads of the men and made an ugly din.[7] The Norsemen retreated. Leif Ericson's half-sister Freydís Eiríksdóttir was pregnant and unable to keep up with the retreating Norsemen. She called out to them to stop fleeing from "such pitiful wretches", adding that if she had weapons, she could do better than that. Freydís seized the sword belonging to a man who had been killed by the natives. She pulled one of her breasts out of her bodice and struck it with the sword, frightening the natives, who fled.[7]
No permanent colonies
Territories and voyages of the Vikings
Settlements in continental North America aimed to exploit natural resources such as furs and in particular lumber, which was in short supply in Greenland due to deforestation.[8] It is unclear why the short-term settlements did not become permanent, though it was in part due to hostile relations with the indigenous peoples, referred to as Skrælings by the Norse. Nevertheless, it appears that sporadic voyages to Markland for forages, timber, and trade with the locals could have lasted as long as 400 years.[9][10]
Evidence of continuing trips includes the Maine Penny, a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign (1066-80) found in a Native American archaeological site in the U.S. state of Maine, suggesting an exchange between the Norse and the Native Americans late in or after the 11th century; and an entry in the Icelandic Annals from 1347 which refers to a small Greenlandic vessel with a crew of eighteen that arrived in Iceland while attempting to return to Greenland from Markland with a load of timber.[11] In addition, Norse materials have been excavated in several Inuit communities.
Aftermath
For some centuries after Christopher Columbus' voyages opened the Americas to large-scale colonization by Europeans, it was unclear whether these stories represented real voyages by the Norse to North America. The sagas were first taken seriously when in 1837 the Danish antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn pointed out the possibility for a Norse settlement in or voyages to North America.
The Skálholt-map
North America, by the name Winland, was first mentioned in written sources in a work by Adam of Bremen from approximately 1075. It was not until the 13th and 14th centuries that the most important works about North America and the early Norse activities there, namely the Sagas of Icelanders, were put into writing.
The question was definitively settled in the 1960s when a Norse settlement was excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland by the archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and her husband, outdoorsman and author Helge Ingstad. The location of the various lands described in the sagas is still unclear however. Many historians identify Helluland with Baffin Island and Markland with Labrador. The location of Vinland is a thornier question. Most believe that the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement is the Vinland settlement described in the sagas; others argue that the sagas depict Vinland as being warmer than Newfoundland and that it therefore lay farther south.
Hare Indian dogs, as illustrated in ''Fauna Boreali-americana, Or, The Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America, 1829
Purported runestones have been found in North America, most famously the Kensington Runestone, that are thought by some to be artifacts from further Norse exploration, although they are typically considered to be hoaxes. There are two maps depicting North America, "The Vinland map", that some believe is related to Norse exploration, although it is considered to be a modern forgery, and the Skálholt Map, made by an Icelandic teacher in the year 1570.
The Hare Indian dog of the banks of the Mackenzie River and Great Bear Lake are thought by some to have originated from crossbreedings between native Tahltan Bear Dogs and Icelandic breeds brought by the viking explorers.[12]
Sunday, April 19, 2009
The Jesus Cup
Professor Craig Evans
New Testament Studies,
Acadia Divinity College, Nova Scotia
On Discovery Channel in the fall of 2008 French marine archaeologist Franck Goddio, co-founder of the Oxford Centre of Maritime Archaeology, announced the discovery of a ceramic cup during underwater exploration of the ancient city of Alexandria, Egypt. Goddio and his team found a cup on which are inscribed the words dia crhstou o goistais, which may mean “the magician by Christ,” perhaps in the sense that “the magician (possesses his power) by (or through) Christ.” (goistais would be understood as a variant of gohth/j or go/hj [“enchanter”].) Goddio and Egyptologist David Fabre date the cup sometime between late second century BC and early first century AD. If the reference is to Jesus Christ, then it would indeed be the earliest inscriptional reference to the founder of Christianity.
However, there are several problems with this suggestion. Although the spelling Xrhsto/j (instead of Xristo/j) is attested in reference to Jesus Christ (e.g., see no. 10 below), the early date of the cup is problematic. Of course, the inscription itself may not be as old as the cup. Another problem has to do with the odd spelling o goistais. Is this really a variant for o9 goh/thj, or some other form of magician? Klaus Hallof, of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy, and Bert Smith, professor of classical archaeology and art at Oxford, have suggested that the inscription should be read ogoistais, in reference to the god Ogoa, mentioned by Pausanias (c. 160 AD), whose followers may have been called Ogoistai. Ogoa, or Osogoa, is another name for Zeus. For references, see Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.10.3 (“the sanctuary of the god [i.e., Zeus], called in the native tongue Osogoa; Strabo, Geography 14.
Although the possibility that the inscription may have referred to Jesus, whose power was invoked by a magician, cannot be ruled out, in my view it is more likely that the reference is to someone named Chrestus (a common enough name), who was either a magician and/or was among the Ogoistai.
Sunday, March 29, 2009
The Bosnian Pyramid Phenomenon
By Robert M. Schoch
Boston University
Semir Osmanagic announced it to the press with fiery conviction: “The history of civilization has to be rewritten,” he said. “Bosnia will become a giant on the world archeological map” (quoted from a May 4, 2006 Reuters Report By Daria Sito-Sucic). On the outskirts of the Bosnian town of Visoko, half an hour drive northwest of Sarajevo, Osmanagic claimed there were two monstrous pyramids (dubbed the “Pyramid of the Sun” and the “Pyramid of the Moon”), and perhaps several smaller pyramids as well. Even the prestigious New York Times picked up the story: “Some See a Pyramid to Hone Bosnia’s Image. Others See a Big Hill.” (New York Times, May 15, 2006, page A8). At least four different websites were devoted to the “Bosnian Pyramids” (http://www.bosnianpyramids.org/ http://www.bosnianpyramid.com/ http://www.bosnian-pyramid.com/ and http://www.piramidasunca.ba/). The supposed pyramids formed the stuff of heated debate at other websites (most notably, perhaps, that of the Archaeological Institute of America, http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/osmanagic/update.html), chat-rooms, and blogs across the Internet.
Were they really man-made pyramids, perhaps dating back thousands of years? (Some advocates placed them as much as 12,000 or 14,000 years in the past.) Now covered with soil, trees, and other vegetation, Bosnian pyramid buffs argued that the “pyramids” needed to be excavated to reveal their glory and prove that Bosnia, of all places, was the virtual origin of, well not just pyramids, but perhaps even civilization. Tunnels reputedly associated with the pyramids were said to contain cryptic engravings that could just possibly be the oldest writing ever discovered. Detractors, on the other hand, saw the so-called pyramids as simply interesting, but perfectly and completely natural, geomorphologic features - - that is, they are just big hills. Some even argued that the whole notion of the Bosnian pyramids was not just a mistake or an ill-conceived notion, but a downright hoax designed to bring prestige, fame, power, and money to Bosnia, Visoko, and the head of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation, the Bosnian-American (he now resides in Houston much of the time where he maintains a business) Semir (“Sam”) Osmanagic (also spelled Osmanagich). Indeed, on May 12, 2006, National Geographic ran an article on their website titled “Pyramid in Bosnia -- Huge Hoax or Colossal Find?” (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/pyramid-bosnia-1.html). It did not help Osmanagic’s case, at least in the eyes of the traditional academic community, that he is an advocate of “alternative history” (see his website http://www.alternativnahistorija.com/), and of his numerous books (mostly published in Bosnian), the one widely available in English, titled The World of the Maya, almost seems purposefully written to provoke the ire of traditional archaeologists.
Having more than a casual interest in ancient pyramids (after all, I am the author of two books focusing on pyramids: Voyages of the Pyramid Builders, and Pyramid Quest), I wanted to see first-hand what all the pyramid fuss in Bosnia was about. If there really was a huge pyramid, larger than the Great Pyramid of Egypt, in Bosnia, then I wanted the opportunity to study it. On the other hand, if there were no pyramids in Bosnia, that would be important to know too. But how to get to Bosnia? The answer turned out to be easy. My friend and professional colleague, Dr. Colette M. Dowell, simply contacted the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation and Semir Osmanagic. Initial contact was followed up with emails and phone calls, and quickly we received an invitation to visit Visoko and see the “pyramids” for ourselves. We made the trip to Bosnia during July and August 2006.The afternoon we arrived in Bosnia, Osmanagic insisted on taking us straightaway to the so-called “Pyramid of the Sun.” I observed the excavated areas of huge stone blocks; blocks that I was told were most definitely not natural. Clearly, Osmanagic insisted, they were man-made concrete blocks that cannot be explained geologically, put into place with a sophisticated ancient technology that has now been lost. Amazingly, he explained, the “concrete” blocks proved to be harder and more durable than any modern concretes or cements. But he and I were apparently seeing different things, perhaps viewing an entirely different world. Where he saw concrete blocks and human intervention, I saw only perfectly natural sandstones and conglomerates that had broken into larger or smaller blocks due both to tectonic stresses and gravity slumping. For a week and a half this seemed to be the dominant theme: Osmanagic and others who worked with and for him insisting that this or that feature can never occur in nature, and thus must be artificial and human-made, versus me finding a perfectly reasonable geological explanation for each of the same features.
The geology around Visoko is incredibly rich, and I suggested to Osmanagic that, in lieu of “pyramids,” he might redefine his “Archaeological Park” as a “Geological-Archaeological Park” and focus more on the geology. Visocica Hill (the one dubbed “Pyramid of the Sun”) and Pljesevica Hill (“Pyramid of the Moon”) are composed of layers of sandstone, clay, mudstone, siltstone, and conglomerates apparently deposited in an ancient lake and river system during Miocene times (about 5.3 to 23 million years ago). The rocks have been tilted and bent due to tectonic stresses. The tectonic forces plastically deformed the clays and mudstones, but the sandstones and conglomerates broke into semi-regularly shaped pieces that Osmanagic and his team have excavated in numerous places, interpreting them as “pavements,” “terraces,” “concrete blocks,” “foundation stones,” and so forth. Interestingly, and tellingly, the sizes of the sandstone and conglomerate blocks found are a function of the thickness of the original rock layers. Thin sandstone layers, stressed tectonically, broke into small blocks while thick and durable conglomerate layers broke into massive blocks. This is exactly the pattern expected among natural rock formations. The sandstones also typically preserve various sedimentary and depositional features, such as ripple marks and the traces of ancient burrowing animals. These same rocks are also rich in paleontology. In some of the sandstone layers, and in many of the mudstone layers, I found large accumulations of fossil leaf debris and even some fairly complete Miocene fossil leaves. I believe that the real treasure of Visoko may be a huge fossil biota just waiting to be uncovered, not some imaginary pyramids.
While wondering the streets of Visoko, being offered all sorts of pyramid souvenirs, from tee shirts to copper plates bearing depictions of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun (stylistically rendered either as a stepped Mayan-style pyramid or, less frequently, as a smooth-sided Giza-style pyramid), I continued to hope against hope that I could find some “truth” underlying the “pyramid mania” that has gripped the region. One last possibility might be the evidence of the reputed tunnels found in the area that supposedly connect one pyramid to another. We had the opportunity to explore one tunnel that is currently open; to put it mildly, I was disappointed with what I saw. The tunnel had clearly been entered and modified in recent times, as evidenced by the graffiti found in places, the collapsed ceilings and walls, and the stories that the Yugoslavian army (Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the former Yugoslavia) had once used the tunnels for military purposes, and possibly purposefully destroyed parts of them. If this was an ancient tunnel, it was difficult to tell now. The much-touted “ancient inscriptions” seem not to be ancient at all. I was told by a reliable source that the inscriptions were not there when members of the “pyramid team” initially entered the tunnels less than two years ago. The “ancient inscriptions” had been added since, perhaps non-maliciously, or perhaps as a downright hoax.
So, no pyramids, but there are many fascinating and genuine archaeological wonders in Bosnia. On the summit of Visocica Hill, which overlooks Visoko, are the remains of a medieval fort built on top of Roman ruins, and there is also evidence of Neolithic occupation of the hill, dating back perhaps 5,000 years. While in Bosnia we also visited megalithic ruins attributed to the Illyrians (circa 4th century B.C.), a possible Paleolithic cave (unfortunately, we had neither the time nor equipment to enter it; I would love to return and explore it), and fascinating medieval cemetery monuments to the dead.
Despite my failure to validate the Bosnian pyramid dreams, Semir Osmanagic and all the members of the Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation were most gracious hosts. They spared no effort to make sure that I could view all aspects of the so-called pyramids, even arranging for me to take a short airplane ride to see them from the air. Bosnia is a beautiful country with amazing scenery and a rich history. The people are extremely friendly and hospitable, and Bosnia exhibits a wonderful mixture of Western (Austro-Hungarian) and Eastern (Turkish and Islamic) traditions. Even in the absence of pyramids, it is certainly a country worth visiting.
Stonehenges on both sides of the Atlantic
By Robert M. Schoch
Boston University
North of Boston, near North Salem, New Hampshire, is a labyrinth of megalithic stones that have been the object of wonder and a topic of heated argument for more than two centuries. Sprawling over a couple of dozen acres are found stone walls and various structures that at first glance look like building foundations, cellars, tunnels, and caves - - all composed of laid stone, sometimes still in natural shapes and sometimes roughly worked. The largest placed stone has been estimated at eleven tons. Parts of the complex have been given evocative names, for example, the “Oracle Chamber” and the “Sacrificial Table.” Large erected stones on the periphery of the complex are aligned with significant astronomical positions such as the sunrise and sunset on the equinox, mid-summer and mid-winter sunrises and sunsets, and apparently various lunar motions and stellar alignments, some of which appear to date to the second millennium B.C. This is the site variously known as “Mystery Hill,” “Mystery Hill Caves,” or since the 1980s as “America’s Stonehenge.”
What is “America’s Stonehenge”? Superficially it bears little similarity to the Stonehenge on the Salisbury Plain of England. How old is America’s Stonehenge? Who built it and why? What was it originally like? These are all unanswered questions, but many answers have been proposed.
Solid historical records of America’s Stonehenge date back to the early nineteenth century when Jonathan Pattee lived on and at the site from 1826 to 1855. Pattee and his family used parts of the structure as foundations for buildings and as root cellars, and some people have suggested that Pattee and his five sons built the structures. But, based on one of the stones that is surrounded by a tree stump that began growing in 1769, at least part of the structure must date prior to Pattee’s time. In modern times a number of charcoal samples have been collected from the site, in more or less close approximation to the stone structures, and radiocarbon analyses have yielded dates from historical times to around 2,000 B.C.
Since Pattee’s time, the site has had a checkered history. It was used as a ready quarry (not unlike the Great Pyramid in Egypt during Muslim times), and the structures were dismantled and rock carried away to build local foundations, churches, and other buildings. It is estimated that perhaps 40% of the rock was removed during the nineteenth century.
In the 1890s a professor of architecture at Dartmouth College, Hugh Morrisson, argued that Native Americans who had no tradition of such stone building could not have erected the structures. In 1936/7 William B. Goodwin purchased the property, carried out various excavations and studies, and promoted the view that Culdee Monks from Ireland had circa 1000 A.D. crossed the Atlantic, settled in New Hampshire, and built the site. In the 1950s the area came under the control of Robert E. Stone who first leased and then purchased “Mystery Hill.” In 1958 Stone opened the site to the public, and he initiated a still-ongoing program of serious study, documentation, excavation, and restoration of the site.
Numerous researchers have become involved with, or offered interpretations of, America’s Stonehenge. Opinions range from the notion that it is, after all, simply colonial foundations and root cellars, to linking it to ancient European cultures, such as those that constructed megalithic buildings in Malta and Greece, to thinking in terms of a medieval influx of Europeans across the Atlantic (variations on the themes of Norse warriors or Irish Monks), to attributing the sighting stones constructions to ancient Native Americans. The late Barry Fell, in particular, popularized the concept that some of the stones found at America’s Stonehenge (and many found elsewhere as well) contain cryptic inscriptions written in various Celtic or Gaelic (Ogham), Iberian, and Phoenician scripts, giving clues as to potential builders, or at least visitors to, the site (see Fell’s book, America B.C.). Other researchers have countered that the so-called inscriptions are simply plow marks, root remains, or natural erosion features in the stone.
I am convinced that there was contact between the Old and New Worlds in pre-Columbian times, but I would not hang the case on America’s Stonehenge. I have had the opportunity to explore the site firsthand, and I do not know what to make of it. I tend to think it is not all of one piece - - that is, it may be a mixture of modern (eighteenth and nineteenth century) and ancient structures, but even among the ancient portions I could find no definitive evidence of non-Native American influence. In some ways America’s Stonehenge is a microcosm of the general arguments often encountered in archaeology where the hard evidence is just too sparse to come to a definitive conclusion. It may seem like a copout, but in the case of America’s Stonehenge I rather not judge until, and unless, some compelling evidence is discovered that can be used to firmly attribute and date it.
Turning to the “real” Stonehenge in England, which definitely is thousands of years old and astronomically aligned, new theories and developments continue to be proposed. Last year (2005) Timothy Darvill, professor of archaeology at Bournemouth University, and archaeologist Geoff Wainwright announced that they had found the exact quarry from which the bluestones of Stonehenge were taken over 4,000 years ago. Site of the quarry: Carn Menyn, a mountain in the Preseli Hills of Pembrokeshire, in southwest Wales. This meant, according to their interpretation, that huge monoliths had been quarried and moved some 240 miles to the site of Stonehenge, a truly incredible feat. But just this month (June 2006), geologists from the Open University using geochemical analyses, led by Professor Olwen Williams-Thorpe, have countered that the bluestones used to construct Stonehenge were not moved over two hundred miles by humans, but brought the distance by Ice Age glaciers and then utilized by ancient humans. Even if this proves to be the case, and as a geologist it certainly makes sense to me, it was still a truly monumental feat to carve the bluestones and erect them as the magnificent structure that we see today.
Boston University
North of Boston, near North Salem, New Hampshire, is a labyrinth of megalithic stones that have been the object of wonder and a topic of heated argument for more than two centuries. Sprawling over a couple of dozen acres are found stone walls and various structures that at first glance look like building foundations, cellars, tunnels, and caves - - all composed of laid stone, sometimes still in natural shapes and sometimes roughly worked. The largest placed stone has been estimated at eleven tons. Parts of the complex have been given evocative names, for example, the “Oracle Chamber” and the “Sacrificial Table.” Large erected stones on the periphery of the complex are aligned with significant astronomical positions such as the sunrise and sunset on the equinox, mid-summer and mid-winter sunrises and sunsets, and apparently various lunar motions and stellar alignments, some of which appear to date to the second millennium B.C. This is the site variously known as “Mystery Hill,” “Mystery Hill Caves,” or since the 1980s as “America’s Stonehenge.”
What is “America’s Stonehenge”? Superficially it bears little similarity to the Stonehenge on the Salisbury Plain of England. How old is America’s Stonehenge? Who built it and why? What was it originally like? These are all unanswered questions, but many answers have been proposed.
Solid historical records of America’s Stonehenge date back to the early nineteenth century when Jonathan Pattee lived on and at the site from 1826 to 1855. Pattee and his family used parts of the structure as foundations for buildings and as root cellars, and some people have suggested that Pattee and his five sons built the structures. But, based on one of the stones that is surrounded by a tree stump that began growing in 1769, at least part of the structure must date prior to Pattee’s time. In modern times a number of charcoal samples have been collected from the site, in more or less close approximation to the stone structures, and radiocarbon analyses have yielded dates from historical times to around 2,000 B.C.
Since Pattee’s time, the site has had a checkered history. It was used as a ready quarry (not unlike the Great Pyramid in Egypt during Muslim times), and the structures were dismantled and rock carried away to build local foundations, churches, and other buildings. It is estimated that perhaps 40% of the rock was removed during the nineteenth century.
In the 1890s a professor of architecture at Dartmouth College, Hugh Morrisson, argued that Native Americans who had no tradition of such stone building could not have erected the structures. In 1936/7 William B. Goodwin purchased the property, carried out various excavations and studies, and promoted the view that Culdee Monks from Ireland had circa 1000 A.D. crossed the Atlantic, settled in New Hampshire, and built the site. In the 1950s the area came under the control of Robert E. Stone who first leased and then purchased “Mystery Hill.” In 1958 Stone opened the site to the public, and he initiated a still-ongoing program of serious study, documentation, excavation, and restoration of the site.
Numerous researchers have become involved with, or offered interpretations of, America’s Stonehenge. Opinions range from the notion that it is, after all, simply colonial foundations and root cellars, to linking it to ancient European cultures, such as those that constructed megalithic buildings in Malta and Greece, to thinking in terms of a medieval influx of Europeans across the Atlantic (variations on the themes of Norse warriors or Irish Monks), to attributing the sighting stones constructions to ancient Native Americans. The late Barry Fell, in particular, popularized the concept that some of the stones found at America’s Stonehenge (and many found elsewhere as well) contain cryptic inscriptions written in various Celtic or Gaelic (Ogham), Iberian, and Phoenician scripts, giving clues as to potential builders, or at least visitors to, the site (see Fell’s book, America B.C.). Other researchers have countered that the so-called inscriptions are simply plow marks, root remains, or natural erosion features in the stone.
I am convinced that there was contact between the Old and New Worlds in pre-Columbian times, but I would not hang the case on America’s Stonehenge. I have had the opportunity to explore the site firsthand, and I do not know what to make of it. I tend to think it is not all of one piece - - that is, it may be a mixture of modern (eighteenth and nineteenth century) and ancient structures, but even among the ancient portions I could find no definitive evidence of non-Native American influence. In some ways America’s Stonehenge is a microcosm of the general arguments often encountered in archaeology where the hard evidence is just too sparse to come to a definitive conclusion. It may seem like a copout, but in the case of America’s Stonehenge I rather not judge until, and unless, some compelling evidence is discovered that can be used to firmly attribute and date it.
Turning to the “real” Stonehenge in England, which definitely is thousands of years old and astronomically aligned, new theories and developments continue to be proposed. Last year (2005) Timothy Darvill, professor of archaeology at Bournemouth University, and archaeologist Geoff Wainwright announced that they had found the exact quarry from which the bluestones of Stonehenge were taken over 4,000 years ago. Site of the quarry: Carn Menyn, a mountain in the Preseli Hills of Pembrokeshire, in southwest Wales. This meant, according to their interpretation, that huge monoliths had been quarried and moved some 240 miles to the site of Stonehenge, a truly incredible feat. But just this month (June 2006), geologists from the Open University using geochemical analyses, led by Professor Olwen Williams-Thorpe, have countered that the bluestones used to construct Stonehenge were not moved over two hundred miles by humans, but brought the distance by Ice Age glaciers and then utilized by ancient humans. Even if this proves to be the case, and as a geologist it certainly makes sense to me, it was still a truly monumental feat to carve the bluestones and erect them as the magnificent structure that we see today.
The Crowned Dragon of China and New Archaeological Finds in the Americas
By Robert M. Schoch
Boston University
The discovery of a new species of dinosaur was reported earlier this year (February 2006) from 160 million-year-old fossil beds of northwest China. The scientific name, Guanlong wucaii, meaning in Chinese “Crowned Dragon,” is apt since this relatively small bipedal dinosaur (it stood about three and a half feet tall, and had an overall length of about ten feet) carried on its head a large complex crest, perhaps brightly colored when the animal was alive, which may have been used in behavioral displays to either attract, or perhaps threaten, other members of its species. The Crowned Dragon was probably covered in simple feathers, as is known to have been the case for other members of its taxonomic group, not for flight but as protection and insulation. As a side note, the close connection between certain dinosaurs and birds is now generally recognized, and indeed if you eat a chicken or turkey, you are effectively eating a little dinosaur-form of animal.
But what makes the Crowned Dragon so exciting to some paleontologists, and members of the general public, is that it is apparently a primitive form of tyrannosaur, that group made famous in the popular eye by the fierce Tyrannosaurus rex who roamed western North America about 70 million years ago. Although hailed by some reporters as the ancestor of T. rex, the Crowned Dragon was much more likely a member of a primitive side branch of tyrannosaurs, sort of a distant cousin tens of millions of generations removed. Still, the Crowned Dragon is certainly related to North American T. rex, but it is found in China. What is going on? Back then the continents and oceans were in different positions, global climatic patterns were not the same as today, and dinosaurs were free to roam from one region of the world to another, regions that are now separated by oceans or mountain ranges.
Jump forward to modern times - - well, modern times from a geological perspective. The continents and oceans are positioned as we know them, and many a mainstream archaeologist has suggested, or simply assumed, that there was no connection between the classical Old World and the civilizations of the New World for the very simple reason that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans posed impenetrable barriers to contact and cross fertilization until Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492. Over the years a number of scholars have questioned this dogma, including yours truly (in my book Voyages of the Pyramid Builders), yet old and entrenched ideas die slowly. But why am I bringing this topic up? I cannot help think about it as I review a few new archaeological discoveries from the Americas that have just been made public (May 2006).
A thirty-ton monolith (twenty-five feet wide, thirteen feet high, and sixteen inches thick), dated to circa 900 B.C., with enigmatic carvings on it, has been reported from the newly opened archaeological site of Tamtoc, about 550 miles northeast of Mexico City. So far the “Mexican Monolith” has been interpreted as possibly a lunar calendar, but it also contains symbols that have apparently never been seen in the Americas before. Some experts are suggesting that perhaps it is an Olmec carving, or at least related to the Olmecs. The Olmecs formed an early civilization that originated around 1100 B.C. further south in what are now the areas of Veracruz and Tabasco. But where did the Olmec people come from? This has long been a mystery. One distinct possibility, which I discuss in Voyages, is that the Olmec civilization arose at least in part due to an influx of ancient Shang Chinese who crossed the Pacific during the twelfth millennium B.C. Shang pictographs have been identified on Olmec artifacts, most notably by the researcher Michael Xu (Central Oklahoma University), and there is a distinct Chinese tradition of a large group of Shang heading east into the Pacific, never to return to China. Furthermore, the Olmec were pyramid builders, and so were the ancient Chinese, and I believe there are distinct similarities evident between the ancient Chinese pyramids (including some found in the region of Mongolia) and those of the Olmecs. We might also point out that, among Olmec carvings, often on a gigantic scale, are faces that many people view as strikingly African; perhaps the Olmec culture was the original melting pot of races and peoples in America. So where do I suggest that scholars might look as they work to understand the carvings of the newly discovered Mexican Monolith? Ancient China!
There have been other exciting finds reported from South America in recent weeks. From northern Brazil (in the state of Amapa) stories of an “Amazon Stonehenge” have made the news. Reported to consist of 127 granite monoliths, each about ten feet high, arranged in circles in an open field, the structure may date anywhere from about 500 years ago to 2,000 years old. Preliminary work on the site suggests that the stones were used for astronomical observations, indicating a sophisticated interest in the skies, and blocks aligned relative to the winter solstice have been identified.
Also aligned with the solstices is a temple and observatory complex newly discovered in the Peruvian Andes, in the Rio Chillon Valley north of Lima. The observatory itself sits atop a thirty-three-foot high pyramid. On the site are large clay sculptures of animals and a disk bearing a face, along with incised drawings and paintings. Hailed as the oldest astronomical observatory yet identified in the Americas, it dates back some 4,200 years based on radiocarbon dating of burnt materials found in what is interpreted as an offering pit of the temple. Some of the experts are surprised to see evidence of such sophistication and advanced knowledge at such an early period in South American history. However, I am not surprised. Contemporaneously, advanced civilizations were flourishing in Egypt and the Middle East, as well as in the Far East, so why not South America as well? We are all one species, and there may well have been cultural interchange, even if somewhat limited, across the oceans during that very early epoch. At the least, it is something to think about.
Boston University
The discovery of a new species of dinosaur was reported earlier this year (February 2006) from 160 million-year-old fossil beds of northwest China. The scientific name, Guanlong wucaii, meaning in Chinese “Crowned Dragon,” is apt since this relatively small bipedal dinosaur (it stood about three and a half feet tall, and had an overall length of about ten feet) carried on its head a large complex crest, perhaps brightly colored when the animal was alive, which may have been used in behavioral displays to either attract, or perhaps threaten, other members of its species. The Crowned Dragon was probably covered in simple feathers, as is known to have been the case for other members of its taxonomic group, not for flight but as protection and insulation. As a side note, the close connection between certain dinosaurs and birds is now generally recognized, and indeed if you eat a chicken or turkey, you are effectively eating a little dinosaur-form of animal.
But what makes the Crowned Dragon so exciting to some paleontologists, and members of the general public, is that it is apparently a primitive form of tyrannosaur, that group made famous in the popular eye by the fierce Tyrannosaurus rex who roamed western North America about 70 million years ago. Although hailed by some reporters as the ancestor of T. rex, the Crowned Dragon was much more likely a member of a primitive side branch of tyrannosaurs, sort of a distant cousin tens of millions of generations removed. Still, the Crowned Dragon is certainly related to North American T. rex, but it is found in China. What is going on? Back then the continents and oceans were in different positions, global climatic patterns were not the same as today, and dinosaurs were free to roam from one region of the world to another, regions that are now separated by oceans or mountain ranges.
Jump forward to modern times - - well, modern times from a geological perspective. The continents and oceans are positioned as we know them, and many a mainstream archaeologist has suggested, or simply assumed, that there was no connection between the classical Old World and the civilizations of the New World for the very simple reason that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans posed impenetrable barriers to contact and cross fertilization until Columbus crossed the Atlantic in 1492. Over the years a number of scholars have questioned this dogma, including yours truly (in my book Voyages of the Pyramid Builders), yet old and entrenched ideas die slowly. But why am I bringing this topic up? I cannot help think about it as I review a few new archaeological discoveries from the Americas that have just been made public (May 2006).
A thirty-ton monolith (twenty-five feet wide, thirteen feet high, and sixteen inches thick), dated to circa 900 B.C., with enigmatic carvings on it, has been reported from the newly opened archaeological site of Tamtoc, about 550 miles northeast of Mexico City. So far the “Mexican Monolith” has been interpreted as possibly a lunar calendar, but it also contains symbols that have apparently never been seen in the Americas before. Some experts are suggesting that perhaps it is an Olmec carving, or at least related to the Olmecs. The Olmecs formed an early civilization that originated around 1100 B.C. further south in what are now the areas of Veracruz and Tabasco. But where did the Olmec people come from? This has long been a mystery. One distinct possibility, which I discuss in Voyages, is that the Olmec civilization arose at least in part due to an influx of ancient Shang Chinese who crossed the Pacific during the twelfth millennium B.C. Shang pictographs have been identified on Olmec artifacts, most notably by the researcher Michael Xu (Central Oklahoma University), and there is a distinct Chinese tradition of a large group of Shang heading east into the Pacific, never to return to China. Furthermore, the Olmec were pyramid builders, and so were the ancient Chinese, and I believe there are distinct similarities evident between the ancient Chinese pyramids (including some found in the region of Mongolia) and those of the Olmecs. We might also point out that, among Olmec carvings, often on a gigantic scale, are faces that many people view as strikingly African; perhaps the Olmec culture was the original melting pot of races and peoples in America. So where do I suggest that scholars might look as they work to understand the carvings of the newly discovered Mexican Monolith? Ancient China!
There have been other exciting finds reported from South America in recent weeks. From northern Brazil (in the state of Amapa) stories of an “Amazon Stonehenge” have made the news. Reported to consist of 127 granite monoliths, each about ten feet high, arranged in circles in an open field, the structure may date anywhere from about 500 years ago to 2,000 years old. Preliminary work on the site suggests that the stones were used for astronomical observations, indicating a sophisticated interest in the skies, and blocks aligned relative to the winter solstice have been identified.
Also aligned with the solstices is a temple and observatory complex newly discovered in the Peruvian Andes, in the Rio Chillon Valley north of Lima. The observatory itself sits atop a thirty-three-foot high pyramid. On the site are large clay sculptures of animals and a disk bearing a face, along with incised drawings and paintings. Hailed as the oldest astronomical observatory yet identified in the Americas, it dates back some 4,200 years based on radiocarbon dating of burnt materials found in what is interpreted as an offering pit of the temple. Some of the experts are surprised to see evidence of such sophistication and advanced knowledge at such an early period in South American history. However, I am not surprised. Contemporaneously, advanced civilizations were flourishing in Egypt and the Middle East, as well as in the Far East, so why not South America as well? We are all one species, and there may well have been cultural interchange, even if somewhat limited, across the oceans during that very early epoch. At the least, it is something to think about.
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